



Class 


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PHILOLOGICAL GRAMMAR, 



GROUNDED UPON ENGLISH, AND FORMED FROM 

A COMPARISON OF MORE THAN ~ 

& 
SIXTT LANGUAGES. 



AN INTRODUCTION TO THE SCIENCE OF GRAMMAR, 

AND 

A HELP TO GRAMMARS OF ALL LANGUAGES, 

ESPECIALLY 

ENGLISH, LATIN, AND GREEK. 



By WILLIAM BARNES, B.D. 

£t. Sofjn's College, CamkiDge. 

LONDON : 

JOHN RUSSELL SMITH, 

36, SOHO SQUARE. 

MDCCCLIY. 



-Y^° l 



-3 



3 



LONDON : 
PRINTED BY E. TUCKER, PERRY'S PLACE, OXFORD STREET. 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Preface v 

Introduction 1 

ORTHOGRAPHY 6 

The Breathings . . 10 

Clippings 11 

Division I. — Lip Division 14 

„ II. — Tongue Division 15 

„ III.— Throat Settings 15 

Equivalent Consonants . 18 

Some Rules of English Spelling 19 

Phonetic Alphabet 21 

ETYMOLOGY 28 

Shifting of pure Breath-sounds or Vowels . . 47 

Etymological Figures 48 

Formation of Words 49 

English Nouns 51 

Verbal Nouns 57 

Diminutive Nouns 59 

Bad or Unworthy Nouns 61 

Nouns of Likeness, or Madeness, or Artificiality . 61 

Collective Nouns 62 

Nouns of Past and Coming Time 62 

Augmentive Nouns 62 

Noun of Agent 63 

,, of Place, &c 65 

,, of Instrument 65 

Nouns of Quality * . . . 66 

Patronymics 67 

Noun of Place 70 

Gentile Nouns 71 

Table of Roots 75 

Universal Noun 76 

Person 76 

Gender 76 

Number 81 

The Plural of Excellence 84 

Case 85 

Definite and Indefinite Things 121 



CONTENTS. 

Etymology — continued. page 

Shifting of Case. — Twofold Cases . . .121 

Pronouns 145 

Adjectives 155 

Verbs 168 

Participles 182 

Negative Verbs 184 

Tense 184 

Table of Tense Forms 195 

Mood 196 

English Strong Verbs 214 

Mixed Verbs 217 

Adverbs and Prepositions, or Postpositions 227 

Adverbs 227 

Prepositions, Postpositions, &c 233 

Conjunctions . . 240 

SYNTAX 242 

Eelative Propositions 243 

Parenthesis 248 

Single Propositions 249 

Twofold Propositions 250 

Ellipsis 253 

Pleonasm 256. 

Other Figures of Grammar 256 

Purity 258 

Ethnology and Language 259 

PROSODY 261 

RHYME 277 

Twofold Rhymings 282 

Blank Verse 283 

Sonnet 284 

Word-Matching 286 

Clipping-Rhyme, or Matching of Clippings . .287 

Old Teutonic Poetry . . 289 

Celtic Poetry of the Bards 291 

v Palindrome * . 297 

Paronomasia 298 

Speech-Matching 298 

Task 299 

Hebrew Poetry 302 

Index 309 



- 



PREFACE, 



TO THE READER. 

Worthy Reader, 

There are three sciences which are of great 
service for the strengthening of the mind and the 
sharpening of the wit, and for the helping of the under- 
standing in its search after truth, — Geometry, Logic, 
and Grammar; but if we would make Grammar truly 
worthy of its two fellow- sciences, we must seek to con- 
form it to the universal or to some common laws of 
speech, so as to make it the science of the language of 
mankind, rather than the Grammar of one tongue. 

A knowledge of the forms which have grown out of 
common laws, working with peculiar elements in one 
tongue, cannot be fairly taken for the Science of Grammar, 
any more than a knowledge of the organs of one plant, 
when some even of them are misformed from accidental 
causes, is the science of botany. 

The formation of language is always a conformation 
to three things in nature : (1) the beings, actions, and 



VI PREFACE. 

relations of things in the universe \ (2) the conceptions 
of them by the mind of man ; and (3) the action of the 
organs of speech : and inasmuch as the beings, actions, 
and relations of things, and the mind and the organs of 
speech, are the same in kind to all men upon earth, and 
a need of conformity to them is itself a law, so far, it is 
clear, that some common laws must hold in the formation 
of languages, and the science of those laws, when they 
are unfolded, is Grammar. 

What the Senor Astarloa says in his Apologia de la 
Lengua Bascongada (Apology for the Basque Language) 
is true of English as well as Spanish : " A blind slaver 
to the Greek and Latin languages, and a readiness to 
believe that every thing which imitates their idioms 
must be so far regular, has misdirected or fettered our 
whole literature/ ' 

Although I have sought to build my Grammar, mainly 
of general forms, in conformity with common laws, yet 
I have so far grounded it upon English as to make it an 
English Grammar, and have taken up so many Latin 
and Greek speech-forms as to make it of service to the 
less learned teacher and more forward learner of the 
dead languages of our schools. 



PREFACE. 



Vll 



The languages from which I have drawn my prin- 
ciples and forms are, — 



Latin (Lat.) 

Romaunt (Bom.) 

Italian (It.) 

Spanish (Span.) 

Portuguese .... (Port.) 

French Fr. 

Greek Greek. 

Romaic. 
Albanian. 

English (Fkg.) 

Anglo-Saxon. . . . (A.-^ax.) 

German (Germ) 

Low Dutch .... (Du.) 
Masso-Gothic . . . (M. Goth.) 
Icelandic or Norse . (Icel., No.) 

Swedish (Swed.) 

Norwegian (Norweg) 

Danish (Ban) 

Old Teutonic dialects. 

Welsh. 

Irish. 

Gaelic. 

Bretonne. 

Russian (Russ.) 

Bohemian. 

Polish. 

Wallachian. 



Wendish-Servian. 
Illyric. 
Bulgarian. 
Turkish. 

Persian (Pers.) 

Sanscrit. 

Hindoostanee . . . (Hindoost.) 
Damulican. 
Khoordish. 
Mandshoo. 
Mongolian. 

Lazistanish, of Lazistan, by the 
Black Sea. 

Hebrew (Heb.) 

Arabic (Arab.) 

Chaldee. 

Syriac. 

Maltese. 

Egyptian or Coptic. 

Malay. 

Basque. 

Armenian. 

Chinese. 

Finnic. 

Hungarian, or Magyar. 

Lapponic. 

Syrjsena. 



11 


PREFACE. 


Cheremissian. 


Maori, of New Zealand. 


Esthnonian. 


Hawiish, of Hawaii or Owhyhee 


Cree. 


Bisaya, of the Philippine Islands 


Chippeway. 


Australian. 


Greenlandish. 


Language of Marquesas Islands 


Japanese. 


Tonga. 


Malay. 


Kafir. 




I am, 




Worthy Reader, 




Your very obedient servant, 




W. Barnes 


DOECHESTEE, 




March, 


1854. 



A PHILOLOGICAL GRAMMAR. 



INTRODUCTION. 

1. Grammar is the science of speech. 

2. Speech is the formation and utterance of breathsounds, 
by which men communicate thoughts one to another. 

Speech is not the same among all nations on the earth, but different 
nations or kindreds or tribes of men own sundry bodies of breath- 
sounds for the communication of thoughts. 

The sundry bodies of breathsounds owned by different bodies of 
men, are called their languages, or tongues, or speeches. 

3. Breathsounds of a language may be either pure breath- 
sounds, or clipped or articulate breathsounds. 

The breathsounds of speech are formed by streams of breath, 
flowing through the throat and mouth or nostrils, under the 
action of the throat, tongue, and lips ; with the palate, teeth, 
and nostrils. 

The throat, tongue, and lips ; with the palate, teeth, and 
nostrils, are the organs of speech. 

4. A pure Breathsound is one that may begin and end 
by a stream of breath flowing through the throat and mouth, 
without any motion of an organ of speech, as o, e. 

A speaker, having set his organs of speech in the form with which 
he utters the sound o, may begin and end it again and again, as o, o, o ; 
without any motion of the tongue, lips, or any other organ of>speech. 

5. A clipped or articulate Breathsound is one that 
cannot begin and end without a motion of an organ of speech. 

The breathsounds bo, po, begin with an opening of the lips ; do, to, 
begin with a motion of the tongue from the palate ; ob, op, end with a 
closing of the lips ; ad, at, end with a motion of the tongue to the 
palate ; go, ho, begin with an opening of the throat ; and ag, ak, end 
with a straitening of the throat; top begins with a motion of the 



% Z INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 

tongue from the palate, and ends w^th a closing of the lips ; and pot 
begins with an opening of the lips, and ends with a motion of the 
tongue to the palate. 

Clipped breathsounds are made of pure breathsounds, em- 
bodied with motions of the organs of speech. 

Breathsounds are either short or long. 

6. A short Breathsound is one that takes up only the 
least length of time in which a single clipped breathsound 
can be clearly uttered ; as bat, met, not. 

7. A long Breathsound is one that takes up twice the 
time of a short one ; as bate, meet, note. 

8. Single breathsounds are called syllables; as a, ball, 
man, sin, woe, Lon-don. 

9. The breathsounds of a language form words which are 
tokens either of notions, as man, horseman, white, skilful, walk, 
ride ; or of relations, as fast, slow, over, under, 

10. A word may be of one syllable, or of more syllables 
than one. 

11. Language is known among all nations, in the form of 
breathsounds, for perception through the hearing ; but among 
some of them words are betokened by visible or tangible 
marks, for perception through the sight or touch. 

The first and most natural form of language is that of 
breathsounds, for perception through the hearing ; and as the 
breathsound form of language is the first and most natural 
one, so it is still the best for the communication of thought 
and will among men, within hearing of each other ; but, in 
the breathsound form, language cannot be heard by the deaf, 
and is confined within a narrow sphere of space round a 
speaker ; and does not continue, otherwise than in the memory 
of a hearer, after the uttering of it : and therefore most 
nations have felt a greater or less need of a form of language, 
in which it may be perceived by the deaf, and by men beyond 
the reach of hearing and sight, from the utterer of it, and 
at any time after the outgiving of it ; and they have more 
or less fully answered their need, with types or visible marks, 
by which breathsounds or words, and therefore thoughts, 



INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 3 

may be communicated to the minds of men through their 
sight. 

12. There are two modes of betokening and communicating 
the words of language by visible marks. 

13. One is the Alphabetic or Phonographic mode, in 
which the pure breathsounds, and the motions of the speech- 
organs for the clipped breathsounds, are betokened or spelt by 
marks, which we call letters. 

This is the mode in which the English, German, Arabic, Greek, and 
other languages are mostly betokened to the sight. 

14. The other mode is the Symbolical or Logographic 
mode, in which the words of a language are betokened, each 
by its own mark. 

This is the mode in which the Chinese language is mostly betokened 
to the sight. 

15. Both the alphabetic and phonographic modes may be 
employed together, in the betokening of the same language ; 
as they are in English, when we betoken any of the numerical 
words, such as three, four, five, by Arabic numerals, 3, 4, 5, 
among other words betokened by letters. 

Language so betokened to the sight by visible marks, may 
be called Sight-speech. 

By a slight modification of the sight-speech, it has been 
made intelligible through the touch instead of the sight, so 
that it may be read by the blind. In this form the letters 
or symbols of the words are embossed or raised upon flat 
surfaces, and are perceived through the reader's fingers. 

Language so betokened to the fingers may be called Finger- 
speech. 

Language betokened by visible types for the sight, or by 
tangible ones for the touch may be called Type-language. 

16. There is another mode of betokening facts and ideas — 
that of signals and tokens for the hearing and sight; and 
although it cannot be rightly called language, it is often a 
good substitute for true breathsound speech as well as type- 
language. 

Of such signals are the ringing of bells for the calling of 
folk to worship, or for gathering them to dinner; or for the 



4 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 

summoning of a waiter into a room : the clapping of hands, 
in approbation of a skilful performance ; the whistle of the 
railway-engine; or the blowing of a coach-guard's horn, to 
give warning of the coming of the train or the coach; the 
blast of the trumpet, or the beating of the drum, by which 
soldiers are bidden to their exercise or work. 

Of such signals are hoisted flags, of different forms or 
colours, by day, or lights by night ; to declare to others, on 
shore or sea, their bearers' nation ; or an admiral's orders ; or 
a crew's wants ; such as was Nelson's signal, "England expects 
every man to do his duty." 

Of such tokens is the emblem of the cross, to beget the 
thought of Christ's death for man's sin, or to declare the 
Christian faith of the owner of it ; such as was the cross worn 
by the Christians in the holy wars. 

Of such tokens are armorial bearings, which announce to 
beholders, who can read the symbols of heraldry, the rank 
and family of those who bear them. 

Of such tokens are the uniform and badges of soldiers, 
which show to what regiment they belong, and the rank they 
hold in it ; and the gowns and hoods which betoken the rank 
of members of the universities, and the degrees they may 
have taken. 

Of such tokens is the black apparel of mourning, which 
announces its wearer's loss of kindred by death; and the 
wedding-ring, which betokens a woman's wifehood, or her 
mourning weeds of woe, which show her widowhood. 

Of such tokens are beckonings of the head or hand, such 
as the forward nod of affirmation, and the backshaking of the 
head for a denial ; or such as the inward motion of the raised 
hand, which may be read "come hither;" and the offward 
motion of it, that means " go away." The uplifted finger, 
which bids bystanders listen; and the downshaken hand, as 
that with which St. Paul {'Acnaatias t£ huq) shook down, or 
beckoned to the people, to forbid a churme or uproar. 

These symbols or tokens, although they fulfil the office of 
words, are not truly language, inasmuch as they are not 
breathsounds or tokens of them. They are loose tokens of 
propositions, which may be given in sundry forms of words. 
Thus, the wedding-ring may be read either "wife," or 
"married;" the upholden finger would not be misread, as 
" hold your tongues," or " listen," or " don't talk ; " the bell 
may mean " go to chapel," or " come to dinner ; " and the 



INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 5 

drum may mean several biddings, which may be distinguished 
by the time of day at which it may be beaten. 

The half-language of signals, like true language in its 
breathsound form, and in its type form, is for perception 
through the hearing and sight ; and, as breathsound-language 
is for the hearing, in sounds; and type-language is for the 
sight, in visible marks ; and for the touch, in tangible ones ; 
therefore language is known in forms in which it may be 
perceived by three of the senses — hearing, sight, and touch. 

17. There is said to be, however, something of a half- 
language in the form of symbols of flowers; and inasmuch 
as the flowers, which may be known as symbols of words or 
propositions, may be distinguished by the smell as well as 
sight, insomuch they may be read through the sense of smell. 

18. Type-language has been of great help in the exaltation 
of man's moral nature ; for the enlarging of his knowledge, 
and for the weal of his social life. 

In type-language the dead outgiver of it still speaks through 
a long series of days and years, to later men of many genera- 
tions ; and the thoughts of a mind on one side of an ocean, 
or of the earth, may be communicated to one on the other, 
unperceived by any soul in its passage between them. 

In type-language our Saviour still teaches the millions of 
his Church the wisdom from above; and the prophets and 
apostles and evangelists, though dead, yet speak. By type- 
language holy men of all times, faithful men of all trials, the 
learned of all lore, the seekers of all knowledge, the ga- 
therers of all historical truth and statistical facts, the searchers 
into all the laws and works of nature, travellers among all 
nations, navigators of all seas, the ready in all traffic, and the 
skilful in all crafts, can communicate their thoughts and feel- 
ings, and learning and knowledge, and truths and facts, and 
science and arts, to others, of all places on the earth, and of 
any times after them. 

By type-language all the hundreds or thousands of authors 
of the books in a library are ever uttering, side by side, their 
still language of instruction ; and while the words of one are 
not drowned by the clashing voices of the others, each is 
always ready to yield to its reader its treasures of knowledge 
and thought. 

By type-language, in a will, the dead father gives his beloved 



6 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

widow her provision of worldly goods, and divides among his 
children the fruits of his labour. By type-language in the 
conveyance, the seller of house or land is for ever renouncing 
the ownership of it to the heirs or assigns of the buyer ; and 
in the receipt, the receiver of money is unceasingly declar- 
ing that it has come into his hands. By type-language the 
lonely guidepost and milestone tell the traveller which road 
to take on the darksome heath, and the length of it that 
lies before him. 

By type-language the house, or its door, announces the 
name and business of its householder, and the grave gives an 
account of its dead. 

19. In the Grammar of a language, in the type form, it is 
usual to handle it in four divisions, Orthography, Etymology, 
Syntax, and Prosody, though in its first form, that of breath- 
sound-language, it has only three of those divisions, Etymo- 
logy, Syntax, and Prosody. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 

20. Orthography is the science of the visible or tangible 
marks, which betoken the breathsounds of a language to the 
sight or touch ; or, in other words, 

Orthography is the science of the spelling of the breath- 
sounds of a language. 

21. The marks that spell words, or that betoken to the 
sight or touch, the pure breathsounds, and the motions of the 
organs of speech, in the articulate breathsounds, are called 
Letters. 

The letters taken to spell the words of a language are called 
the Alphabet of the language. 

22. The letters that spell the pure breathsounds, as such, or 
as they are embodied in clipped breathsounds, are called 
Vowels. 

(From the Latin vocalis, belonging to the voice, vox; because they 
are letters of pure voice-sounds. Vocalis, voalis, became the French 
voyelle, and the English voweL) 



ORTHOGRAPHY 7 

23. The clipped breathsounds of the English language are 
made by motions of the organs of speech, embodied with 16 
pure breathsounds, as there are in English 16 voicesounds, 
8 long and 8 short, 8 close and 8 open. 

24. The open sounds are so called, because they are made 
with the tongue and underjaw more open from the palate than 
the close ones. 







Long Close Sounds. 






Short Close Sounds 


1 


ee 


as in meet. 


1 


i 


as in wit. 


2 


e 


as the ea in read, in the 
rustic dialect of the Went 
of England. 


2 


i 


as in dip. 


3 


a 


as in mate. 


3 


e 


as in men. 


4 


ea 


as in earth. 


4 


e 


as in battery, or e 
of the French le. 



ee in meet is the same sound as i in wit lengthened ; as the 
long sounds, 2, 3, and 4, are the short ones, 2, 3, and 4, 
lengthened. 

The i in dip, fit, clearly differs from i in wit, kitten ; but it 
is markworthy that, although the sounds 1, 3, and 4, are 
found both short and long, in the national speech of our 
books, yet we now own the sound 2 only as a short one ; and 
therefore that our book language wants one of the 16 vowel 
sounds : but, as it still lingers in some of her rustic dialects, 
we may believe she once owned it, and has lost it; and it 
would be worth while to inquire, through the dialects of West 
Saxony and the German language, whether the long sound, 
No. 2, is betokened by any vowel or diphthong of the Anglo- 
Saxon. 



25. 




Long Open Sounds. 






Short Open Sounds 


5 


a 


as in father. 


5 


a 


as in fat. 


6 


aw 


as in awe. 


6 





as in dot. 


7 





as in rope. 


7 


u 


as in ML. 


8 


00 


as in food. 


8 


00 


as in crook. 



The division of the close and open sounds is set between 
the sound of ea in earth, and that of a in father, because, 
in uttering the long sounds in succession, the tongue and 
under jaw are found to open wider from the palate between 
those two than any other two sounds, and because a division 
between those two leaves 4 close and 4 open ones. 



8 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 



26. A diphthong* is the meeting of two vowel-sounds uttered 
in immediate succession, as oi in voice, ou injound. 

27. A triphthong f is the meeting of three vowel-sounds, 
uttered in immediate succession. 

These diphthongs and triphthongs are sometimes called, in 
Grammars of type language, proper diphthovgs and triph- 
thongs, to distinguish them from what are called improper 
diphthongs and triphthongs, or the meetings of two or three 
vowel letters, of which we utter, in breathsound speech, only 
one of the two, or one or two of the three, as ea in read, oa in 
boat, ieiv in view, eau in bureau; but the letters so called 
diphthongs and triphthongs, inasmuch as they betoken only 
one sound, are truly no diphthongs or triphthongs at all. 
They may be digrams or trigrams, 2»ypajx/x#T# or Tp/yp#/x- 
puTct, but they cannot be ^(p^oyyoi or Tpfyboyyoi. 

Some of the English letters, which we call single vowels, 
are truly diphthongs. The sound of the i long, as in life, is a 
combination of two vowel-sounds, the 4th and 1st short close 
ones; and the u in duty is a combination of the 1st short 
close one and the 4th short open one. 

W at the beginning of a word is a vowel, with the 4th short 
open sound, as in wind {poind), sow (so-oo) ; and y short has 
the 1st short close sound, as in yonder (ee-onder), boy (bau-ee). 

28. The letters that spell the motions of the organs of 
speech in the clipped breathsounds are called Consonants. 

From the Latin " consonans," withsounding ; because they betoken 
nothing more than motions of the organs of speech, which are not 
themselves breathsounds, though they modify breathsounds, and there- 
fore they do not betoken breathsounds otherwise than with vowels. 

The motions of the organs of speech are — 

A motion of the lips to or from each other; as in ab } ap, 
am ; bo, po, me ; or to or from the teeth ; as af, av, fo, vo. 

The motion of the tongue up to or out from the palate ; as 
in ad, at, an, at; do, lo, no, to. 

The motion of the tongue nearer towards or farther from 
the palate ; as in ar, as, az ; ro, so, zo. 

* So called from the Greek dig, twice, and 00oyyoc, sound ; i. e. a twofold 
sound. 

t So called from the Greek rpig, thrice, and <j>06yyog } sound ; i.e. & three- 
fold sound. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 9 

The motion of the tongue to or from the teeth ; as in ath, 
ad; tho, do. 

The motion of the throat by a straitening or widening of it ; 
as in ag, ak, aq ; go, ko, qo. 

29. The consonants are divided into classes of lip letters, 
lip-teeth letters, tongue-teeth letters, palate letters, and throat 
letters, after the organs of speech whose motions they spell. 

30. The lip letters are those that spell the motions of the 
lips to or from each other ; as b, p, m, in ab, ap, am ; bo, po, 
mo. 

31. One of the lip letters, m, is a lip-nose letter, because it 
spells an opening or shutting of the lips with the nostrils 
open ; while the bare lip letters spell motions of the lips with 
the nose stopped. 

32. The lip-teeth letters are those that spell the motions of 
the lip to or from the teeth; as v,f, in av, af ; vo, fo. 

33. The tongue-teeth letters are those that spell the motions 
of the tongue to or from the teeth ; as ^ ; or the smooth 
and rough th, in other, death ; thy, thigh. 

34. The palate letters are those that spell the motions of 
the tongue up to or out from the palate ; as d, I, n, t, in ad, al, 
an, at ; do, lo, no, to ; or r, s, z, in ar, as, az ; ro, so, zo. 

35. One of the palate letters, n, is a palate-nose letter, as it 
spells a motion of the tongue up to or out from the palate 
with the nostrils open, while the other palate letters spell 
motions of the tongue with the breath stopped from the 
nose. 

36. The throat letters are those which spell motions of the 
throat ; as g, k, c, q, in ag, ak, ac, aq ; go, ko, co, quo. 

37. The pure breathsounds are made by the flowing of a 
stream of breath from the lungs through the throat and 
mouth or nostrils ; and the motions of the tongue, or other 
organs of speech, form pure breathsounds into clipped ones 
by clippings, which are the narrowings, widenings, divertings, 

1 & 



10 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

or stoppings of the stream of breath upon which they work, 
as a hatch, by its shiftings, acts with a stream of water. 

38. Consonants are divided into two classes, Mutes and 
Semivowels, as they betoken stoppings or only narro wings of 
the stream of breath. 

39. The Mutes are those letters which betoken such set- 
tings of the organs of speech as must needs stop the breath- 
stream at the end of a breathsound ; as b, p, d, t, g, k, m ; ab, 
ap, ad, at, ag, ak. 

40. The Semivowels are those letters which betoken such 
settings of the organs of speech as do not of need stop the 
stream of breath at the end of a breathsound ; as v, f, in av, 
of; orj, r, s, z, in aj, ar, as, az ; or m, n, in am, an. 

In the making of the breathsounds av, of, the breath is 
still allowed to flow on, hissing, between the lip and the teeth. 
At the end of the breathsounds aj, ar, as, az, it is still free to 
go out, with a hissing or dull breathsound, between the tongue 
and palate ; and the closing of the lips in am, and the striking 
of the tongue on the palate in an, still leave it an open way 
through the nostrils. 

L, m, n, r, are called Liquids, because they spell easy clip- 
pings that make good breathsounds. 



The Breathings. 

41. There are two breathings, — the weak or soft, or 
smooth or slow; and the strong or hard, or rough or quick 
breathing. 

The weak or soft, or smooth or slow breathing, is a stream 
of breath that flows with less impulse and speed; and the 
strong or hard, or rough or quick breathing, is a stream of 
breath that flows with greater impulse or speed in the making 
of a breathsound. 

In the making of the pure breathsounds, the strong or hard, 
or rough or quick breathing, is a sudden impulse of the 
breathstream at the beginning of them ; and in the English 
alphabet, and others derived from the Latin, the mark for it is 
h, or some other such letter; and in Greek it is the mark *, 
as opog, horos. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 11 

Weak breathsounds, a, e, o ; at, et, ot. 

Strong breathsounds, ha, he, ho ; hat, het, hot. 

In the making of the clipped breathsounds, the weak 
breathing is a slacker breathstream, with a slacker action of 
the organs of speech ; and the strong breathing is a quickened 
breathstream, with a quicker action of the organs of speech. 

Weak breathings, bob, vav, dod, zoz ; juj, gug. 

Strong breathings, pap, faf, tot ; sos, chuch, kuk. 

42. The two breathings in clipped breathsounds are mostly 
marked in type-language by two sets of letters, and therefore 
some of the lip letters, lip-teeth letters, tongue-teeth letters, 
palate letters, and throat letters, are fellows by two and two ; 
each of a pair spelling the same clipping as the other, but 
with a slacker or quicker outflowing of the breath ; and thence 
such pairs of letters are called cognate-letters, or fellow -letters, 
or kins -letters. 

43. We have shown that the letters of an alphabet are of different 
kinds ; those of one kind being akin to each other, with some quality 
in which they differ from the others, — such as the vowels, as they differ 
from the consonants ; or the lip letters, lip-teeth letters, tongue-teeth 
letters, palate letters, and throat letters ; or the mutes, as they differ 
from the semivowels ; or the pairs of kins-letters, as they differ from 
each other only in impulse of breath : and therefore it might seem, at 
first thought, that the best order for the succession of the letters in the 
alphabet would be that of some succession of their classes ; such as 
that the vowels might stand together at the head of the alphabet, 
with the consonants below them; and that the consonants of each 
class might be placed together, with the classes in some order of 
succession. 

We do not, however, find any such order of letters, or of their classes, 
in actual alphabets. In the Hebrew alphabet the letters of one class 
are dispersed, seemingly without any forechosen order, among those of 
others ; and as many, if not most, of the later alphabets of Europe, 
Asia, and America have been formed after the Hebrew, or that of a 
Shemitic language akin to it, they do not show any more marked order 
of their letters than their prototype. 

Clippings. 

44. Sometimes words that are much worn in their own 
language, or are taken, as borrowed words, into another, lose 
a clipping, and do not take any other instead of it ; and yet 
the letter of the lost clipping abides in the type language, 



12 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

though it does not stand for any thing in the breathsound 
speech ; as, in English, — 

45. Unclijjped throat-letter before a palate-letter, 

(6) g in foreign. k in Zrnife. 

g in ^ash. k in knocker. 

g in impugn. k in Arnow. 

k in faiave. g in resign. 

k in &nell. g in si^n. 
c in indict. 

46. Undipped throat-letter before a palate-letter, and 

at the end of a word. 

(7) g in bright. g in ri^ht. 
g in %ht. g in hi^h. 

g in li^ht. g in plough. 

47. Undipped throat-letter before a lip-letter. 
(5) g in apothegm, phlegm, paradigm. 

■ 

48. Undipped I. 

(4) ba/m, ca/m, psa/m, talk, 
ca/f, ha/f, sta/k, wa/k. 

Undipped s. 
8 in demesne, puisne, corps, viscount. 

49. Undipped palate-letter after a lip-letter, 

(3) n in autunm, hynm, solemn. 

50. Undipped lip-letter before a palate-letter. 

(2) p in josalm, psalter, Ptolemy, 
b in debtor, subtle, bdellium. 

51. Undipped lip-letter after a lip-letter. 

(1) b in clim#, com&, dum6, tom&. 

52. Other undipped letters, 
ph in ^Athisis, th in as/toa. 

A of x=ks in Xenophon, Xerxes. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 13 

53. From the dispositions of sundry nations to especial 
settings of the organs of speech, and from a tendency in all to 
give up harder for more easy ones, the clipped breathsounds 
of a tongue, after a long wear in their own language, or a 
reception, as borrowed words, into another, often lose a clip- 
ping of one class, and assume that of another instead of it, 
while the letter of the first clipping abides in the type-language 
as a token of the latter. 

Thus, in the Latin word natura, the t is a close palate letter, but in 
the English nature it is an open palate letter, of the force of tsh. 

The French word sure has become the English sure (shure). The c 
in the Latin vermiculus (most likely equal to k), became tsh in the 
Italian vermicelli (varmigelli), and is mostly s, as vermicelli is pro- 
nounced in England. 

/in of is breathed v, as it often is in Icelandic ; and the ph of 
joMhisis is not clipped in English. 

p in ^salm (Greek tpaXfibg), and b in debtor (Lat. debitor), stand for 
clippings which are not made in English, though they were in Greek 
and Latin. 

The t of the word nation is in English sh, and in French s ; ch in 
the English and French Charles, and in champagne and chain, have 
two different clippings, tsh and sh ; the g in diligence, English, is 
dj, and in the French diligence, like s in pleasure ; and the z of mangel 
wiirzel is, in German, ts ; and the t in et stands for a palate clipping 
in Latin, and for none in French. 

The I of caff, and haZf, Anglo-Saxon cealf, healf, the n in autunm, 
hynm, (Latin, aulumnus, hymnus,) were clipped in the word-giving 
languages, though we drop them; and the LI in Ztewellyn betoken one 
clipping to the Welsh, and another to us. 

In the Anglo-Saxon word cnafa, German knabe, and in the Latin 
signo, the c and k and g are formed ; but in our forms of the words 
knave, sign, although the k of /mave, and g of sign, stand in the type- 
language, yet their dipping is unknown in the breath-sound speech. 

54. The same letter stands, in different languages, for 
different clippings; and when words with such a letter are 
taken from one language into another, they will sometimes 
retain the clipping of the word-giving language in the word- 
taking one t so that the word-taking language will then have 
the same letter standing for different clippings, — its own clip- 
ping of the letter, and the word-giving language's clipping 
of it. 

Thus the letter B is, in Russian, articulated V; C is sometimes equal 
to tsh in Italian ; / is, in English, a palate letter of one clipping, but in 



14 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

French a palate letter of another ; in Italian a vowel, and in Spanish a 
throat letter. 

ch are, in English, tsh, in French s7i, and in Latin and German a 
throat-clipping. 

w is articulated, in German, as v. 

Thence, in the English words cow, calf, colt, the c is clipped as k ; 
and in the words certain, city, from the French, it is clipped as s. 

ch in the English words chap, chick, chop, churm, have the force of 
tsh ; in the words chaise, machine, they are equal to sh ; and in the 
words chord, chronology, from the Latin, or rather Greek, they betoken 
the clipping of k. 

g in the English words gate, give, go, gun, is a hard throat letter ; 
but in the words gelid, virgin, it is a palate letter. 

j in the English words jar, jest, jig, job, is a palate letter of one 
clipping ; and in the word joujoux it is a palate letter of a different one. 

55. We have in English 16 pure breathsounds, and only 
7 letters for the writing of them ; and we have 19 settings of 
the organs of speech in our clipped breathsounds, and only 
16 letters that spell any of them : so that we have 9 pure 
breathsounds and 3 settings of the organs of speech, for which, 
as such breathsounds and settings, we have no letters. 

It is true we have 26 letters in our alphabet ; and if we were 
to take the so-called vowels as 7, a, e, i, o, u, and w and y, we 
should have left 19 consonants. But our c, when it is soft, as 
in cinnamon, is s ; and when it is hard, as in card, it is k ; 
our q, as in queen, is k or c hard, as in kween or cween ; our 
x in ox is ks, as in oks ; and therefore our c, q, and <r, instead 
of being sole representatives each of its own clipping, are 
virtually nothing more than forms of other consonants ; and 
we have no more consonants with them than we should have 
without them, namely 16. 

56. The settings of the organs of speech in the English 
language, and the main ones of Europe and Asia, are 
these : — ■ 







DIVISION I. 








Lip Division. 




Class 


1. 

Weak breathing 

B. 


Lip settings. 

Strong breathing. 
P. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 15 

57. Class 2. Lip-teeth settings. 

Weak breathing. Strong breathing. 

V. F, 

58. Class 3. Lip-settings, nose-breathed. 

(M) (MP) as in pump, 

DIVISION II. 
Tongue Division. 

59. Class 4. Tongue-palate close settings, 

(D) English. (T) English. 

( 5 ) broad Irish. ( r ) broad Irish. 

(j ) English. (ch) Eng. ; (q) Russ. 

60. Class 5. Tongue-palate open settings. 

(*) (») 

(,;) Fr.; (ja) Russ.; (zha) Persian, (sh) Eng.; (sha) Russ. 
(r) (hr) 

61. Class 6. Tongue-palate, nose-breathed. 

(I) English. (hi) (11) Welsh. 

(/) slender Irish. (I) broad Irish. 

(n) (ng) 

(n) nasal, Fr. and Portuguese ; (>^) Hindostanee. 
(n) Irish. 

62. Class 7. Tongue-teeth settings. 

(th) in thee ; (d) Icelandic. (th) in thin. 

(dd) Welsh. (z) Spanish. 

DIVISION III. 

63. Class 8. Throat Settings. 

(g) hard. (k) 

(gh) Irish; (g) Span, and Germ, (x) Greek and Russ. ; 

(j) Spanish. 
(ch) Germ, and Welsh. 
(ghain) Arabic. 



16 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

64. The pure breathsounds and clippings for which, as such, 
and only such, we have not any letters in our alphabet, are 
either not marked at all in our type-language, or else are 
betokened by sundry associations of the letters of the other 
breathsounds and clippings. Some of them are as clumsy and 
puzzling as the slightest exercise of wit could have willingly 
left them, as they make a consonant --the mark of a vowel, 
and two consonants the mark of clipping, of which neither of 
them, singly, is the type of any element. 

Examples of differences of sounds unmarked by letters : — 

The sound of a in calf is not the same as that of a in walk ; 
the a in fat is short, the a in father is long ; the e in fetid, 
mediate, is different from that in fetor, medicine. 

The i in dip, lip, nip, pip, sip, is different from the i in wit, 
give, pin, dutiful ; the i in machine is different from the i in 
chine. 

oo in door is different from the oo in poor, and oo in blood. 

The u in dall, hwll, is not of the same sound as that of 
u in ball, fall. 

u in daly is a diphthong, composed of the sounds 1 and 8 ; 
u in dally is the short 7th sound, of which the only token is 
the other /. So a in slater is the long 3d sound, and a in 
slattern the short 5th ; o in bony is the long 7th sound, and 
o in bonny the short 6th ; but the only tokens of the short 
sounds of u in dally, a in slattern, and o in bonny, are the 
consonants /, t, and n ; so that we make consonants the tokens 
of vowel-sounds. Bad as it is to betoken the sound of a 
vowel in a word by one of its consonants, we make our spelling 
the more puzzling, inasmuch as we do so in some words and 
not in others ; for while the u, a and o of daly, slater, and bony 
would be read long, for the want of the pairs of consonants of 
dally, slattern, and bonny, the o, e, and a of body, level, and 
manor are short before single consonants. 

The First Long Sound is spelt in English by e ; as me, she, 
he, be. 

ee, or two e's parted by a consonant ; as breed, deed, meet, 
glebe, recede, scene, scheme. 

ea, as beaver, clean, dream, gleam, reap. 

ei, as deceive, seize. 

eo, as people. 

ie, as belief, brief, grief, thief. A 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 17 



Third Long Sound. 

a at the end of a syllable; as nature, creator. 
ae, as brae (Scotch) . 

a before a consonant and e ; as date, fate, gale, game, hale, 
lame, name, same. 
ai, as in bail, fail, hail, mail, main, rain, plait, strait. 
ay, as day, gay, hay, way. 

Fourth Long Sound. 
ea, as in earth. 
i, as in birth. 

Fifth Long Sound. 

a, as after, barm, calm, father, farm, rather. 
au, as laugh. 
e, as clerk, serjeant. 

Sixth Long Sound. 

a before 11, as all, ball, call, fall, pall, stall, wall. 

a after w, as warm, war, ward. 
aw, as daw, ]aw, law, gnaw, naw, raw, straw, 
au, as cawght, daughter, naughty, taught. 
ou, as brought, cough, fought, sought, thought. 

Seventh Long Sound. 

oe or o before a consonant and e ; as doe, foe, hoe, toe, lore, 
mole, pope, rope, store, wore. 
oa, as boat, coat, doat, goat. 
au, eau, as hawtboy, beau, 
oo, as door, floor. 

o before r, as port, sport. 
ou, as thowgh, mourn, 
ow, as blow, grow, low, mow, slow, snow. 



Eighth Long Sound. 

oo, as food, hood, mood, rood. 

ou, as sowp, yowth. 

ui, as brwise, frwit, recrwit, swit. 



18 ORTHOGRAPHY. 



First Short Sound. 

i, as give, pin, spin, wit. 
y or ey at the end of a word ; as beauty, duty, alley, valley. 

Second Short Sound. 

i, as ditty, fit, hit, pipkin. 
u, as basy. 

Third Short Sound. 

e, as bed, fed, men, pen, step, wet. 
ea, as breathy death, meadow, head, 
eo, as leopard, jeopardy. 

Fourth Short Sound. 

a, e, o, ou, in a short unaccented syllable ; as grammar, 
geography, natter, slavery, priory, major, various, virtuows. 

Fifth Short Sound. 
a, as battle, fancy, gather, happy, lap, map. 

Sixth Short Sound. 

o, as dol, gol, hot, jolly, lop, mop, robber, sobbing. 
a after w, as was, watch, wadding, warrant. 

Seventh Short Sound. 

u, as babble, dall, hall, mad, rab, tab. 
oo, as blood, flood. 
ou, as enough, roagh, doable, treble. 

Eighth Short Sound. 

u, as ball, Ml, pall. 
ou, as shoald, coald. 
oo, as stood, wool, good, foot. 

Equivalent Consonants, 
in English type-language. 

65. c soft, as s: cinnamon, cinnamon. 

c before h, in English words, is equivalent to ts : chin, ts\\m. 
t in creature, feature, nature, has the power of ch. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 19 

s betokens the clippings of d and j French ; or d and s 
in pleasure. 

q is k : quick, kuick. 

ch, in words from the Greek, is equivalent to k: chorus, 
scheme; korus, skeme. 

x betokens the clippings of ks : ox, oks. 

c and t before i and another vowel, is sometimes equivalent 
to sh : ocean, social, martial, partial, nation, portion, are 
oshean, soshial, marshial, parshial, nashion, porshion. 

ch, in some words from the French, are sh : chaise, machine; 
shaise, mashine. 

ph are equivalent to / or v : phenomenon, phantom, feno- 
menon, fantom ; nephew, Stephen, nevew, Steven, 



SOME KULES OF ENGLISH SPELLING. 

66. (1) When a word ending with y, after a consonant, 
takes on another syllable beginning with a consonant or any 
vowel but i, the y commonly becomes i : 

carry, carrier. merry, merrily, 

happy, happier. accompany, accompaniment. 

67. (2) When a word ending with a consonant, after a short 
accented vowel, takes on another syllable beginning with a 
vowel, the consonant is commonly doubled : 

begin, begi^^er. sit, sitting. 

set, se^er. wit, wittj. 

68. (3) When a word that ends with a consonant and 
mute e, after a long vowel, takes on another syllable beginning 
with a vowel, the e is thrown out : 

prude, prudish. slave, slavish. white, whitish. 



69. (4) When a word ending with a consonant, after a 
diphthong, takes on another syllable, the consonant is not 
doubled : 

bowl, bowler. coil, coiling. jail, jailer, 
nail, nailer. sail, sailor. toil, toiling. 



20 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

70. (5) When a word that ends with a consonant and 

mute e, after a short vowel, takes on another syllable, the e is 

thrown out : , , 

sedge, sedgy. 

71. (6) When a word that ends with a consonant and mute 
e, after a long vowel, takes on another syllable beginning 
with a consonant, the e is retained ; as 

abate, abatement. manage, management, 

change, changeable. close, closely, 
state, statement. pale, paleness. 

72. (7) When a word ending with a mute e, after a long 
vowel, takes on another syllable beginning with a consonant, 
the e is thrown out ; as 

due, duly. true, truly. 

73. It seems clear that the type-form of a language should 
be true to its breathsound-form ; and that there should be one 
letter, and no more than one, for every breathsound and 
setting of the organs of speech. 

As our alphabet is short of the breathsounds and clippings 
by many letters ; and as letters abide in our language in words 
from other tongues, or from the older form of our own, as marks 
of other breathsounds or clippings than their own, or as un- 
meaning marks of lost ones ; and as letters of words borrowed 
from other languages stand sometimes for the breathsounds 
and clippings which they betokened in the word-giving lan- 
guages, and at other times for those which they mark in our 
own, — therefore our type-language is not true to the breath- 
sound-speech, and is very anomalous and puzzling, and hard to 
learn and keep in mind. 

This untruthfulness of our spelling is a great hindrance and 
evil to our children and others in their learning of our type- 
language, and some English grammarians have sought to 
reduce it to accordance with our breathsound-speech. The 
best method to this end seems to be that of the upfilling of 
our alphabet by new letters — formed, as far as possible, from 
the elementary strokes of those we have — for the breathsounds 
and clippings which are not now marked by letters of their 
own, and by throwing aside all but one of those that now 
stand for the same clipping or breathsound. 

Such an alphabet has been formed and published by 
Messrs. Pitman. It is called the Phonotypic or Phonographic 
Alphabet, and contains letters not only for most of the voice- 
sounds and articulations, but also for the diphthongs. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 



21 



74. 



Phonetic Alphabet. 
Vowels. 







Long Close Sounds. 




Short Close Sounds. 


1 


*i 


. . meet 


Ii 


. . wit, yet. 


2 




. . (wanting) 


.... 


. . (wanting). 


3 


8e 


. . mate 


Ee 


. . men. 


4 


.... 


. . (wanting) 


.... 


. . battery. 


75. 




Long Open Sounds. 




Short Open Sounds. 


5 


H^ 


. . father 


A a 


. . fat. 


6 


O © 


. . awe 


Oo 


. . dot. 


7 


a<y 


. . bone 


Uu 


. . Ml. 


8 


Hill 


. . fool 


Ww 


. . Ml, wet. 



76. 



77. 



Diphthongs. 



ei 


. . fine 


ow 


. . how. 


ai 


. . aye 


mi 


. . you, tune 


01 


, . yoice 







Consonants. 



Lip-settings. 



Tongue-settings. 



Throat-settings. 



(1) Bb Pp (4) Dd 



Tt 



(S)Qt S {gmgo) 
K k (c in call) 



(2) V v F f (5) J j ( j French) . & c, (sh in she) 
Zz Ss 

Er * 



(3) Mm * (6) LI 

Nn 



* 

TJb (ng) 



(7) Eb {th in thin). 3d {th in thee) 



78. 



Breathing. 
H h .... as in he. 



79. The coalescents in we, yes, are expressed by the same 
letters as the 1st and 8th short vowels. 



2.2 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

80. The looseness and untruthfulness of our spelling, as a 
representation of our speech, have arisen partly from the want 
of letters, or from the retention, in words from other lan- 
guages, or the old form of English, of letters which now 
must be taken for marks of other clippings or sounds than 
their own, or of none at all. 

From the want of letters, we must needs spell different 
sounds or clippings with the same, as the i of dip and wit ; 
the v in me, men, and slavery ; and th in thin and thee; or we 
must spell a sound or clipping with two letters, which singly 
mark two different ones, as au in daughter, or oo in food, ch 
in church, or sh in shall. 

The retention, in words from other languages, or the old 
form of English, of letters which must now be taken for marks 
of other clippings than their own, or of none at all, has sprung 
from the nature of type-language, which seems more stubborn 
than breathsound-spcech against immutation. This con- 
servative nature of type-language is, to some extent, a good 
rather than an evil ; and therefore we should not be unwise 
to inquire where we should meddle with it, or stop its 
operation. 

Our language has been strongly withholden from immu- 
tation, though not fast bound from it, by our translation of 
the Bible, and the works of our good old writers; and the 
reception of English books in America has kept its language 
from wearing off, as fast as it would have worn without it, 
from the form of its mother tongue. 

The conservative nature of type-language is a good as long 
as it can conserve the breathsound-speech; but when, not- 
withstanding the backholding nature of type-language, words 
have already worn off wholly and for ever from old forms, its 
conservative power, as to those words, is no longer of any 
good, and all recommendations of it, grounded upon the 
good of its conservative nature, are idle. 

Our old spelling, or rather type-language, may yet conserve 
the true and full construction of the abstract noun ending in 
ing; as 'the opening of parliament/ 'the reading of the will/ 
' the getting of treasure by a lying tongue is a vanity/ ' the 
building of houses is costly/ instead of the more usual form 
of our breathsound-speech, 'opening parliament/ 'reading 
the will/ ' getting treasure/ 'building houses/ 

It may even preserve, with some speakers, the I clipping in 
balm, calf, half; but it is far too late for it to keep the k clip- 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 23 

ping of knave, knife, knocker, knciv ; or the gh clipping in 
bright, fight, high, light, plough, right; or the I clipping in 
should, would. 

It has been objected to the outcasting of the unsounded 
vowels and undipped consonants in words received from other 
tongues, or from an older form of our own, that they are of 
some good, as tokens of the etymology of words. 

If they are of good, they must be so either to all readers, 
or only to some men, or to some classes of men ; as to the 
learned with the loreless, or to the learned alone. 

It cannot be believed that the k in knave, knife, knob, know, 
or the g in impugn, sign, or the b in debtor, subtle, or the p 
in corps, or the o in leopard, can be of any good to the un- 
learned, to show him, while he knows nothing of Anglo- 
Saxon, German, Dutch, Danish, Latin, Greek, or French, that 

knave is from Anglo-Saxon cnapa ; Germ, knabe. 

knob „ „ „ cncep; Germ, knopf; Du. knocp. 

knife „ „ „ cnif; Du. knief; Dan. kniv. 

know „ „ „ cnaw-an; Gr. yvoco. 
that impugn is from the Latin impugno. 

„ signo. 
„ debitor. 
„ subtilis. 
French corps. 
Latin leopardus. 

It does not seem likely, therefore, that the retention of 
unsounded or undipped letters can be of any good as etymo- 
logical tokens to the unlearned ; and it is not to be received 
without gainsaying, that they are needed by the learned in 
their labours on comparative grammar. They know too well 
the nature and frequency of syncope and immutations of the 
different classes of clippings, to be baffled in their trackings of 
the word tooth to the Gothic tunths, Latin denies, Greek 
odovreg, only from the want of an n in tooth for toonth ; nor 
do they need that we should write papier, or papyr, for paper, 
as a clue to the origin of the word from the French papier, or 
Greek nci%vpos ; nor does the / or / in foot at all hinder them 
from referring foot to the Gothic fotus, Greek noSeg, Latin 
pedes ; nor the want of g in stair, Anglo-Saxon stager, with- 
hold them from the discovery of its root in stigan, to climb 
or ascend. 

Indeed, it is only on the understanding that words in their 



sign 

debtor 

subtle 


3i 3 
i) 3 


corps 
leopard 
does not seem 


)) } 

)) ) 

likely, 



24 ORTnOGRAPnY. 

olden forms had some such sounds and clippings as their 
letters betoken, that their new forms can be referred to their 
earlier ones : if we were to believe that awes and nasus were 
pronounced pos and bar, wc should lose them as old forms of 
our ear and nose. 

But the truth is, that even a sound argument for the keep- 
ing of unpronounced letters in our words as elements of older 
forms, Avill not stand good for all the anomalies of our spelling. 
We write words with unsounded and undipped letters that 
were unknown in their older or original forms, and therefore 
whatever reason holds good for retaining letters as tokens of 
etymology, are good reasons for the outcasting of them. 

The Utter j in l view ' cannot refer it to the French vue y 
which has no i ; nor does the letter / in could refer it to its 
Anglo-Saxon form cu%, or to any tense of its root, cunn-an 
in Anglo-Saxon and Gothic. The / in should is radical, but 
in could it is not, and seems to have been taken in only to 
' could' some conformity with f should.' 
The type-form of our language must, sooner or later, follow 
the immutations of the breathsound-speech, or else it cannot 
answer its end in social life. The type-form of the language 
of our forefathers, the Anglo-Saxons, has already so far fol- 
lowed the tongue-speech, that nobody would now write bisceop 
for bis ho/), dag for day, heofon for heaven, godspel for gospel, 
wifman for woman, fugel for fowl, or cining for king. Many 
unsounded and undipped letters have been ejected since the 
time of king Alfred; and unless it can be shown that the 
spelling has so far conformed to the speech for the worse 
rather than for the better, and that Italian words would be 
better spelt with the letters of their Latin forms, and Romaic 
ones with those of their old Greek forms, then the reasons 
for the retention of unpronounced letters in English do not 
seem to hold good : they must be given up at some time, and 
we have only to decide how long they shall be preserved. 

Thence we can form some answer to one of the heaviest 
objections that lie against phonotypy. 

That it would or must either wholly take place of the old 
spelling, or not. 

That if it should but partially take place of the old spel- 
ling, it would bring us this evil, that we should have to learn 
and work, very unhandily, two forms of spelling instead of 
one ; and 

That if it were wholly to take place of the old spelling, then 



OllTHOGRAPnY. 25 

it would leave all the books and writings of English type- 
speech in the old spelling hardly intelligible, without the 
learning of the old spelling, and therefore of two forms of 
spelling instead of one. 

To the first objection it may be answered, that the learn- 
ing of phonotypy is much easier to a child than that of our 
untruthful spelling ; so that one who reads our actual type- 
speech, may read phonotypy readily in a few hours or days. 

To the second objection it may likewise be answered, that 
the reading of type-language in the old spelling to a ready 
reader of phonotypy, would be but little, if any, harder than 
the learning of church-text after Roman type. 

And in answer to both objections it may be said, that 
spelling, however its immutations have lagged behind tongue- 
speech, has already, from time to time, changed for the sake 
of conformity to it ; and will, sooner or later, do so again. 

The strongest objections to phonotypy seem to be those 
grounded upon the unhandy working of the two modes of 
spelling in the businesses of life, which is such that many 
could not follow it without loss. 

If a publisher were to print a book in phonotypy, he would 
sell but few copies of it. If a man were to write in phono- 
graphy to another who did not understand it, he would lose 
his labour, with some time, which may be of great worth : 
and if a schoolmaster were to teach his pupils to write only 
with the new spelling, he would get but few to teach, in- 
asmuch as youths, whose hands might be trained only to 
phonography, would be unfit to hold the pen of commerce. 

These objections must be made and answered by men as 
circumstances affect them. 

81. There is reason to believe that the writing of the 
ancient Greeks was a true spelling of their breathsounds, 
and that the consonants of the Roman alphabet spelt dis- 
tinctively enough the clippings of Latin : though, from the 
want of two sets of vowels, the long breathsounds were written 
with the same letters as the short ones, as is still found, with 
no little vexation, by our learners of Latin prosody. 

With six or eight more vowels, the Romans could have 
written all their long and short sounds each with its own 
letter; and from the want of them, the learner of Latin is 
now burthened with as many pages of rules on the quantities 
of Latin vowels. 

2 



26 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

82. In the Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese languages, the 
daughters of the Latin, the long and short vowel-sounds are 
as little marked as they are in the mother speech ; and it is 
markworthy, that both in Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and 
French, and in some of the Scandinavian tongues, such as 
Icelandic and Swedish, which are lettered with the Roman 
alphabet, some letters, such as c, g, k, x (class 8), are throat- 
letters or hard letters before the open vowels, and tongue- 
palate-letters or soft letters (class 4 or 5), before the close 
vowels. 

This twofold clipping of the throat-letters, or at least of 
c and g, is known in English, in which we begin the words 
cat, goat, cut, gun with throat-clippings, and the words cease, 
gin with open tongue-palate ones, that of s as sease, and 
that of j as c jinJ 

From these two kinds of clippings of the throat- letters, the 
hard ones before open vowels, and the soft ones before close 
vowels, in many of the tongues lettered from the Roman 
alphabet the open vowels are often called hard ones, and the 
close ones soft. 

83. In French and Portuguese the letters m and n have two 
breathings — the pure nostril-breathing, and a mouth-nostril 
breathing; and s and /, in some of the Roman lettered 
languages, stand for weak as well as strong articulations, as 
in mesa (meza), Portuguese; af (av), Swedish. 

84. Notwithstanding this looseness of spelling a throat- 
and palate-clipping, or a strong and weak one, with the same 
letter, yet, inasmuch as the clipping is regularly marked by 
the place of the consonant in the Italian, Spanish, Portu- 
guese, Icelandic, Swedish, and Danish languages, their spelling 
may be taken as phono typic 

85. The spelling of French is as untruthful as that of 
English, while that of German, notwithstanding its twins 
and threes of letters, such as ff, ch, sch for one clipping, is 
one of the most phonotypically spelt of the tongues of 
Europe. 

86. Among languages of truthfully phonotypic spelling 
may be ranked the Welsh, although some of its clippings are 
betokened by twin letters, ch, del, ff, 11, ph, th; and Irish 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 27 

would be worthy of her clear-voiced Celtic sister, if she did 
not show so many unsounded letters in her digrammata and 
trigrammata of vowels, and a little looseness in some of her 
broad and thin consonants. 

87. The most truly lettered language in Europe seems to 
be the Russian, the alphabet of which was formed of Greek 
letters, and some new ones for the more exclusively Sclavonic 
clippings, by the Greek missionaries, who were sent into 
Moravia by the emperor Michael III. in the ninth century. 

The Sclavonic tongues, Wendish- Servian, Illyric, and 
Bulgarian, as well as the Magyar, Finnic, and Cheremissian, 
are given in clearly marked and very true spelling, though 
their alphabets are formed by markings and offshapings of 
the Roman letters. 

88. Persian, Hindoostanee, Khoordish, and Turkish, are 
spelt with almost true phonotypy, although they may have 
borrowed some words from the Arabic, with Arabic letters of 
the same clippings as some of their own, and are therefore 
burdened with some pairs of consonants for one and the same 
clipping ; and in Turkish, some few soft consonants are hard 
or mute at the end of a word. 

89. Hebrew, with points, is a language of phonotypic 
spelling; and so is its sister Arabic, notwithstanding its 
tashdeed, from the mutation of the I of its article before the 
solar letters, which is regular and marked. 

90. Basque is faithfully lettered by the Roman alphabet, 
and Sanscrit, Mongolian, and Armenian by their own. 



28 ETYMOLOGY. 



ETYMOLOGY. 

91. Etymology is the science of the formation of 
different kinds of words. 

92. Thoughts are thoughts of things, with their qualities, 
and beings, and actions, and relations; and words are of 
different kinds, as tokens of the qualities and beings, and 
actions and relations of things. 

93. Words are taken by most grammarians as of five kinds : 
1. Noun; 2. Pronoun; 3. Adjective; 4. Verb ; 5. Adverb; 
6. Preposition; 7. Conjunction; and 8 Interjection. 

94. A Noun (name -word) is the name of any thing. 

The word ' thing ' is given here for whatever becomes the subject of 
thought and speech, or whatever is betokened by one name, whether a 
single being, as boy, stone, or more beings than one, as boys, stones. 

The word ' thing ' is from the Scandinavian thing-a, thing-en, to 
talk j whence the Norwegian diet is called the 'stor-thing,' the 'great- 
talking' (parliament). From the root 'thing' came the word 'think,' 
of which to ' talk ' is the manifestation ; and a thing is whatever 
becomes the subject of thinking or talking. 

95. A noun may be the name of a class of things of their 
name, as ' a city ;' which is the name for all cities : or a noun 
may be the name of only some one thing of its kind, as 
i London/ which is the name of only some one city. 

96. The name of a class of things of their name is called 
a common noun, as ' boy ; ' and the name of only some one 
thing is called a proper noun. 

97. A thought may be one of more or fewer, or more or 
less of the things of a name, as that ( all birds have wings ;' 
or a bird, or one bird, or each or every bird, or the bird, or 
this , or that, or another bird has been killed ; or few, or some, 
or many, or other birds, or such birds, or these or those birds, 
have been killed ; or which or what bird has been killed ? or 
has either or any bird been killed? or this is the bird which 
has been shot ; it is dead. 



ETYMOLOGY. 29 

And a word that marks the limitation of the thought to the 
whole or a share of the things of a name (such as those 
words in italics) is a limiting pronoun. 

98. Things of a name may be of different qualities, as 
birds may be large or small, or white or black, or good or bad ; 
and there is a class of words called Adjectives, to tell the 
qualities of things. 

An Adjective is a word to tell the quality of a thing. 

99. A thought of a thing, must be a thought of it with some 
mode of being or with some action of its own ; and there is a 
class of words called Verbs that name being and action. 

A Verb is a word which names being or action. 

100. Actions, or beings or predicates of the same name 
may be of different modes, as a bird may fly fast or slowly ; 
or vpward or downward ; or twice or thrice ; or hither or 
thither ; or often or seldom ; or early or late ; and there is a 
class of words, mostly called Adverbs, to name the modes of 
actions and beings or predicates of the same name. 

An Adverb, or mode-word, is a word that names the modes 
of actions and beings or predicates of the same name. 

Adverbs may be called one-thing mode-words, as they name 
barely the modes of predicates, without the inbringing of 
more than one thing into the sentence ; as ' the bird flies 
fast/ a sentence in which there is only one thing, the bird; 
and fast names the mode of its action, flies. And Preposi- 
tions may be called two-thing mode-words, as they name the 
modes of predicates with the inbringing of at least two things 
into the sentence ; as ' the bird flew over the tree : ' a sen- 
tence in which there are two things, the bird and the tree, 
and over names the mode of the action flew as to the tree. 

101. One may tell of one action or being of things of more 
names than one, as f men and birds walk ;' ' sheep and hares 
are timid/ Or one may tell of more actions and beings than 
one of things of the same name; as ' birds fly and walk;' 
' elephants are large and strong/ Or one may tell of different 
thoughts of things of different names, as ' men can walk, but 
birds can fly •' 'lions are large, but mice are small/ Or one 
may tell of different modes of action and being of the same 
thing, as ' men can walk fast or slowly. 3 And there is a class 



30 ETYMOLOGY. 

of words called Conjunctions, for connecting names of things, 
qualities, actions, and beings, and modes of action and being, 
and thoughts . 

A Conjunction is a word for connecting words and thoughts. 

102. A thought may be of things themselves without any 
relation to others, as ' the bird flew;' or a thought may be of 
things with relation to others, as 'the bird was in the tree;' 
or 'the bird flew into, or from, or over, or under, or by, or round 
a tree;' or 'the bird was fond of the nest/ or 'true to its 
nest:' and there are words called Prepositions, with others, 
for the telling of the relations of things to other things or 
their predicates. 

A Preposition is a word that names the relation of things 
to other things or their predicates. 

Prepositions may be called two-thing mode-words, as they 
name the modes of predicates with the inbringing of at least 
two things into the sentence, as ' the bird flew over the tree/ 
a sentence in which there are two things, the bird and the 
tree ; and the word over names the mode of the action flew, of 
one of the things, the bird, as to the other thing, the tree. 

103. A word that is uttered from a strong feeling of the 
mind, but does not name any thing, is called an Interjec- 
tion, as alas ! oh ! lo ! ah ! tush ! fie ! pish ! high ! hush ! 

V^ 104. In the formation of words there happen meetings of 
two clippings, sometimes of different classes, and at other 
times of the same class; and as there is a tendency, in all 
languages, to make the clipping of breathsounds smoother and 
more easy rather than rougher and harder, and as sundry 
nations show a disposition to some classes of clippings rather 
than others ; so it follows that clippings of one class, as they 
meet others in words, or are found in roots received into 
sundry tongues, are often commuted into clippings of another 
class, or left out. 

These changings and omissions of clippings happen more 
often at the meetings of some pairs of clippings than others, 
and some kinds of clippings are omitted more often than 
others; clippings of the hardest utterance being found, in 
most languages, most subject to change and omission. 

There are eight classes of clippings, and the number of 
combinations that can be formed out of n things, taken two 



ETYMOLOGY. 31 

and two together, is n ljB ^, and therefore the eight classes of 
clippings can meet in 8 — ^\ or twenty-eight pairs of different 
classes. But besides these twenty-eight pairs of clippings of 
different classes, there may be eight meetings of two clippings 
of the same class ; and therefore if we would get a synopsis 
of the commutations and omissions of clippings, and of the 
canons of clippings from which they rise, as they affect the 
form of words, we must seek them through all languages in 
at least thirty-six cases. 

In Art. 56, &c, the classes are marked by numbers, which 
betoken them hereunder. 

105. Canons op Clippings. 

[i.i.] 

106. A weak (1) before a strong (1) becomes* strong. 
Lat. su^pono, suppono; o^pono, q^pono. 

b becomes p at the end of a word in Turkish, as heb (all), 
pronounced hep. 

The Latin P has become B in some of the Roman dialects. 

Lat., 'opera./ 'super;' Romaunt, ' ofiras/ ' sobre.' Lat. 
f ca/?illus;' Portuguese, 'cafello.' 

In Welsh p becomes b, as p is eclipsed by b in Irish, by the 
Celtic canons of articulation; as Welsh, 'pen gwr/ man's 
head j ' ei ben/ his head. 

Irish, ' ar b-pmn/ our pain. 

In Cheremissian, p after n becomes b, 

[1.2.] 

107. (1) before (2) becomes 2. 

Lat., suMbcare, suMusus; su^bcare, su^usus. 
/ and v are represented by p and b, and vice versa in 
different Teutonic tongues. 

Germ., au/, han/, hel/, ha£en, iiber, sie^en, silver. 
Eng., up, hemp, help, have, over, seven, silver. 
Gothic, hlaife, li&an. Gr., B^s'piw. 
Lat., fremo. 
A.-Sax., hla/, li/an. 

* I. e., often becomes, or has a tendency to become. Throughout these 
canons of clippings, the predicates of the changings and omissions of the clip- 
pings, which are given in bare verbs for the sake of shortness, are to be taken 
with the like restricted meaning. 



32 ETYMOLOGY. 

In Welsh p becomes ph (f), and b becomes /; and in 
Irish b is aspirated into b (v) by the canons of the Celtic 
changings of clippings. 

Welsh, pen gwr, man's head ; ei phen, her head ; oara 
cann, manchet bread ; ei /ara, his bread. 

In Welsh b becomes / in some adjectives for the feminine 
form, olasus (mas), /lasus {fern), soft. 

Irish, 6ard, a bard ; a vaird, O bard. 

In Persian, f at the end of the root of a class of verbs 
becomes b in the imperative form ; as kooftun, to beat, in- 
finitive ; koob, imperative. 

In Finnic and Cheremissian, p becomes v in the formation 
of words. 

In Cheremissian, v becomes b after m. 

In Hebrew, n and D, undotted, are the weak and strong 
clippings (2) v and /; but when dotted, they become b 
and p. 

In Coptic, the memphitic / becomes b or p in Bashmuric 
and Tanitic. 

In Japanese, the formation of the tenses and moods of verbs 
is grounded upon permutations of clippings, such as / into 
p or b ; as fa, f ei, it, fo, ioo (2) , into pa, pei, pi, po, poo, and 
ha, hei, hi, ho, hru. 

(1) has a tendency to become (2), and vice versa. 
German, 

hab-an, schaaf, pfeffer, halb, schiff, leben, iiber, tief, silber. 
English, 
have, sheep, pepper, half, ship, live, over, deep, silver. 



[1.3.] 

108. (1) with (3) becomes (3). 
hat., suomoveo, suomergo; summoveo, summergo. 
Greek, AeA£/7r(x#/, TfiTDT/xa/; K6X£i(X(xcii,TeTV(Lixcii. 
In Welsh, 6 becomes m, and in Irish, b is eclipsed by m t 
by the Celtic canons of the changings of clippings. 

Welsh, oara cann, manchet bread; fy mara, my bread. 

Irish, bo, cow; ar m-bo (ar mo), our cow. 

In Finnic, p after m becomes m. 

In Cheremissian, p after m becomes 6. 

In Bisaya, b or p becomes m. 



ETYMOLOGY. 33 

[1.4.] 

109. (1) with (4) becomes (4), or goes out. 

Lat., scri^tus, ruptus, q/rtimus, became Ital. scri/to, rofto, 
o^timo. 

debtor, Ptolemy, bdellium, subtle, 
de*tor. *tolemy. *dellium. subtle. 
A weak (1) before a strong (4) becomes strong. 
Lat., scrib~o, scrib-tum, scri/?-tum. 
Gr; Tp/|3w, rir^Tui, Ter^nrcci. 
(4) before (1) becomes (1). 

Lat., adbrevio, a^brevio; adparo, ajoparo. 
In the Kafir language b becomes tj in the accidence of 
nouns, and p becomes tsh. 

[1.5.] 

110. (1) with (5) becomes (5). 

Lat., sufaigo, su&ripio; surrigo, surripio. 
In Greek, before <r becomes strong, Aet'/3«, Kei^/u (Kefaau). 
In Italian b before s has become s. Lat., o&servatio; 
Ital., osservazione. 
p before s goes out in psalm. 

[1.6.] 

111. n before (1) becomes m. 

Lat., irapono, iwpello, iwpossibilis ; impono, impello, \m- 
possibilis. 

Gr., AiVTavw, A#v/3#v«, iv\J/u%oc, ivfiaivoo, 
A/pt/7rava. Xei(j.ficivcd. e/x\pu%o?. £/x/Wv«. 
So in Turkish and Persian. 

Turkish, arabar, a grange ; pronounced ambar. 
„ gurabad, a tower ; pronounced gumbad. 

So hanaper, in English, became hamper, hamper. 
In Spanish, / represents the Lat. p ; as /lover, p/uere. 
Lat., p before /, or a rough (1) before (6), becomes soft b; 
pqpulus, populicus, pop*licus, purlieus. 

[1.7.] 

112. In Greek (1) T with (7) becomes (2) p. 

So in Anglo-Saxon, habb-nn, to have ; hafS, hatli. 

2§ 



34 ETYMOLOGY. 

[1.8.] 

113. In Latin, b before g becomes g. 

su^gero, su^gestus; su^gero, su^gestus. 

[2.2.] 

114. In Icelandic, / at the end of words becomes v. 
The Lat. / has become an aspirate in Spanish. 

Lat., /abulare, /erire. Sp. Aablar, Aerir. 
In Irish, / is eclipsed by b (v) ; as ' dr 6-fuil/ onr blood. 
The iEolic digamma v f (2) appears as v. 

In Lat., as divus, clavis, ovum, vesper, video, 
Gr., BTog. nhedg. wov. IWfpof. eileu. 

[2.3.] 

115. In Icelandic, / before n, in some cases, becomes m. 
In Welsh, m becomes f and in Irish m aspirates into 

v, by the Celtic canons of the changings of consonants. 

Welsh, ( mam dirion/ tender mother ; ' ei /am/ his mother. 

In some Welsh adjectives m in the masculine form becomes 
/ in the feminine, as mwll, foil. 

In Japanese ma, me, mi, &c, are changed into fa, fe, fi, in 
the formation of the moods and tenses of verbs. 

[2.4.] 

116. v before t is gone out in Italian. 

Lat., ' ci vitas.' Ital., civita, civ*ta, f citta.' 
/ before I or t in Icelandic becomes b ; as tana, haft, 
pronounced tabbla, habbt. 

(2) before (4) t in the Latin supines, goes out or becomes 
a vowel, u. 

Latin, cav-eo, cav-tum, cau*tum. 
fov-eo, fov-tum, fo*tum. 

mov-eo, mov-tum, mo*tum. 
solv-o, solv-tum, solu*tum. 

volv-o, volv-tum, volu*tum. 
So the Anglo-Saxon 'hsefde' became 'hse*de/ then our 
word had. 

(4) before (2) becomes (2.) 

Lat., adfero, adfinis, adfluo, Lat., advenire. 
affero. affinis. affluo. Ital., avvenire. 



ETYMOLOGY. 35 

[2.5.] 

117. A strong (5) after a weak (2) becomes weak; as 
waves, slaves, graves; wevz, slevz, grevz. 

/ is pronounced v before r in Icelandic, as haf, arf ; hav, 
arvr. 

Note. — The strong s of the English plural form becomes 
weak (z) after any weak consonant : robes, waves, dreams, 
rods, wars, walls, fans; wreaths, rogues; robz, wevz, drjmz, 
rodz, worz, wolz, fanz, wrjSz, rogz. 

[2.6.] 

118. I before m or / goes out in English, as balm, calm, 
calf, half, psalm; bam, cam, caf, haf, sam. 

f before n in Icelandic is pronounced b ; na/n, nafai. 
n before (2) becomes m. 
Gr., ivtpvg £[x<pvg. 

[2.7.] 

119. /before $ in Icelandic becomes b, as hafSi, f habfr$i. J 
Gr-> 5vjp. Lat., fera. 

[2.8.] 

120. c before v goes out in Latin. 

cognosc-o, cognosc-vi, cogno*vi. 

g and v take place of each other in dialects of the Green- 
landish. 

Our word ' enough ' (enuf) was in A -Sax. 'genog/ so that 
its g has become /. 

[3.3.] 

121. In Hebrew D is thrown away from the noun plural 
in the constructive case. 

D'Tftft, plantations; O^O TO?, plantations of a vineyard. 

[3.4.] 

122. m before a strong t becomes strong mp. 
Northamton (A.-S., NorShamton), Northampton. 

Lat., sum-o, sumtus, su/wptus. 



36 ETYMOLOGY. 

d before m becomes m. 

Lat., admirabilis. Ital., ammirabile. 
In Greek, T £ become a before ^. 

V[V\)T-\LCll, l'4/£u£-/X#/, 7T£Tf/6-jUl^/, 

WV<t-[lxi. e-^ev(T~[Lui. wineiff-tLcUm 



[3.5.] 

123. m (3) before (5) is of easy articulation, so that I 
know not of many languages in which it changes. In Lat., 
m before s goes out in quanisi, quasi. 

s (5) before m has a tendency to go out, as in the French 
careme, for Ital., quaresima, quares*ma. 

[3.6.] 

124. (3) and (6) are liquids, and therefore not of very hard 
utterance in immediate succession. 

m before n and other clippings has, however, a tendency to 
become n, or go out, as 
Lat., condamnare, Ital., condannare, Eng., condem*. 
autumnus, Fr. autonne, autum*. 

damnum. Ital., danno. 

quomjam, eumdem, septemdecim, 
quoniam. eundem. septendecim. 

Gothic, fimf, Eng., bosom, fathom, 
Germ., funf. Germ., busen. faden. 
/x before A, in Greek, introduces 3 ; as 

/X5|X0AWH#, /X6/jLA&JJf«, /X6pl/3A0J{#. 

I before m is commuted or goes out. 

English, balm, calm, psalm, 
ba*m. ca*m. psa*m. 
In the Kafir language m becomes ng in the accidence of 
nouns. 

n before m becomes m, and sometimes goes out. 
Latin, 
in-maturus, in-mortalis, in-memor, in-mitto, in-mundus. 
im-maturus. im-mortalis. im-memor. im-mitto. im-mundus. 
Greek, iv/xivw, ivfxccu, ev^vog, 
£jx/x£vw. i(jLfx,d,ta. e^vivoc. 
alffbdv-oiLcti, vjV0v]v-/x#/, ijj^v^/xa/. 
In Finnic, emm'd for en ma, not I. 



ETYMOLOGY. 37 

In Cheremissian, m before g becomes n. 
In Coptic, n before m becomes m in Theban. 
In Finnic, m before t becomes n. 

In the Lat., can-o, caw-men, car-men, n before m seems 
to become r. 

[3. 7.] 

125. In Russian, the Greek Q before ^ of ap/O/xviTfJtvj has 
become f, as arjfmetjca. 

[3.8.] 

126. A strong (8) before a weak (3) becomes weak. 

%e%'kEy\Lau fiz$pEy(j*zi. 

g before m goes out in apothegm, phlegm, paradigm; 
apuOem, nem, paradjm. 

Lat., exigo, exa^men, examen. 



[4.] 




127. t changes to d. 




Lat., virtute, civitate, levitate. 


Lat. y padrone, 


Sp., virtud. ciudad. levidad. 


It., padrone. 


Germ., tochter, traum, trieb-en, 


Eng., what, 


Eng., daughter, dream, drive. 


Swed., hvad. 



So in Australian. 

Cheremissian, t after n becomes d. 

In Welsh t becomes d and th, and in Irish t is eclipsed 
by d, by the Celtic changes of consonants. 

Welsh, ' tad y plentyn/ the child's father. 

' a dad/ his father ; ' a thad/ her father. 

Irish, l ar d-tir/ our country. 

In some Welsh adjectives, t of the masculine form becomes 
d in the feminine, ' twnn/ ' donn ; ' broken. 

In Finnic, t becomes d before a vowel. 

d before / becomes t or s. 

Lat., ad-tendo, ad-tineo, ad-tribuo, ad-tuli, 
at-tendo. at-tineo. at-tribuo. at-tuli. 
ard-eo, ard-tum, ar-s-um, 

aud-eo. aud-tum. au-s-um. 

cad-o, cad-tum, ca-s-um, 

csed-o. csed-tum. cae-s-um. 

ced-o, ccd-tum, ce-ss-um, 

claud-o. claud-tum. clau-s-um. 



38 





ETYMOLOGY. 




congred-ior, 


congred-tum, 


congre-ss-um, 


cud-o. 


cud-tum. 


cu-s-um. 


divid-Oj 


divid-tuni, 


divi-s-um, 


ed-o. 


ed-tum. 


e-s-urn. 


evad-o, 


evad-tum, 


eva-s-um, 


flect-o. 


fleet-turn. 


flec-s-um. 


fod-io, 


fod-tum, 


fo-ss-um, 


mitt-o. 


mitt-tum. 


mi-ss-um. 


nect-o, 


nect-tum, 


nec-s-um ; 


quat-io. 


quat-tum. 


qua-ss-um. 



Greek, v£q>poL$-Tcu t %eQpa<r-Toii. 

This tendency of t to become s is shown in French, in 
which action, attention, nation, position, &c, are pro- 
nounced action, attention, nation, position, &c. 

Lat., sign-um. Germ., zeich-en. A.-Sax., £ac-n. 
Eng., fok-en. Here s becomes t. 

So the Eng., wha/, e&t, wa/er, street, out, 

is the Germ., was. essen. wmsser. strafe. aus. 

In Russian verbs III, (/) of the infinitive becomes n (g) 
in the indicative; as n^larnnuil) (platjt, to pay), becomes 
n./La x I) (playiu, I pay; . 

So in Turkish, j at the end of a word, and with a strong 
consonant, becomes strong g ; 

as pilij, a hen; pronounced pilic. 
' at-den/ ' at-ten/ from a horse. 

d also becomes v and ;'. 

Lat., audis, hodie, 

Romaunt, auves. It., oggi. 

d and t go out. 

Lat., amatis, audire, rodere, 

Sp. f ama*is. o*ir. Port., ro*er. 



[4.5.] 

128. In Finnic, t before r becomes r. 
In Cheremissian, j before t becomes sh. 
In Australian, d is taken for r ; and r before t becomes / ; 
d t (4) before (5) s r, become (5), or go out. 

Lat., ad-scribo, ad-sumo, ad-rideo, ad-ripio, 
as-scribo. as-sumo. ar-rideo. ar-ripio. 



ETYMOLOGY. 39 

Possum, possunt, posse, for pot-sum, pot-sunt, pot-sse ; 
contractions of potis sum, potes sunt, potis esse. 

Greek, civvr-aia, •vj/fuj-j-w, gw^utgi, Hepurai, 
So the A.-Saxon f G6dspeP has become the Eng. f Go*spel. ; 

129. In Russian, a d changes into m. (J, French) in the 
formation of the verbs, Bu/\bmb (vjdete), to see; Bnmj 
(vjjui), I see. 

So the Lat., ' diurnus/ has become the It. f giorno/ 

Fr., 'jour/ 
The Arabic dh becomes z in Persian . 
The Arabic ft becomes sometimes z and sometimes d in 
Turkish. 
t becomes s. 

Lat., gratia, vitium, hospitium, Goth., fotus, Eng., foot. 
Fr. } grace, vice, hospice. Germ., fuss. 
So in Finnic accidence. 
r before d t becomes s, or takes s. 

Lat., torr-eo, torr-tum, to-s-tum. 
haur-io, haur-tum, hau-s-tum. 
hser-o, hser-tum, hses-um. 

ger-o, ger-tum, ges-tum. 

In Kafir, nz becomes nj in the inflections. 
r changes for s z. 
Goth., haus-yan, Germ., war, frier-en, verlier-en, hase, eisen. 
Eng., hear. Eng., was. freeze. lose. hare. iron. 

[4.6.] 

130. A weak (4) before (6) becomes (6). 

Lat., ad-lego, ad-ludo, ad-numero, ad-noto, 
al-lego. al-ludo. an-numero. an-noto. 
In Welsh, t changes into nh, and d into n and m, 
Irish, d is eclipsed by n by the Celtic canons of articulation. 

Welsh, * tad y plentyn/ the child's father j 
1 fy nhad/ my father. 
<Duw/ God; < fy Nuw/ my God. 

Irish, doras, ' ar n-doras/ our door. 



40 ETYMOLOGY. 

n before a (4) goes out. 
Lat., scind-o, find-o, fund-o, tund-o, 
sci*di. fi*di. fu*di. tutu*di. 

In A. -Sax., n goes out before d in strong verbs. 
Ic, stand, Ic, stond, sto*d, Eng., stood. 
Ic.j cunne, Ic, cunnde, cu*de, Eng., could (cud). 
In Arabic, when / of the article comes before (4) it be- 
comes (4). 

aldunya, the world; pronounced addunya. 
aljibol, the hill ; pronounced ajji bo I. 
In Dutch, Romaunt, and Spanish, / is gone out before (4). 
Dutch, houd, oud, zout, Lat., multi, altro, 

Eng., hold. old. salt. Rom. moti. Sp., otro. 
Finnic, t after In becomes In. 
In Bisaya, d or t becomes n. 

[4.7.] 

131. A (4) changes into a (7). 

Greek, rsbciXm, ritoevviu, TS0A/p«, for 

deflaAwa, OiQftwa, QibKupa, by the rules of 
reduplication of the initial consonants for the perfect tense. 
In Coptic, the Q of the Memphitic becomes t in Tanitic. 
The Germ, tod, haicfe, das, arbeit, Gott, 

are the Eng. dea/A, heath, /hat. Goth., arbaits, Guths. 

In some Welsh adjectives, d of the masculine form becomes 
$ for the feminine, ' da ' (m.) ' 3a ' (f.) good. 

In Hebrew, 1 (d ) ft (t) become the aspirates (7) $ and th, 
when they are undotted. 

In A.-Sax., when (3), the consonant of the personal ending 
of the verb, is brought by syncope of its vowel immediately 
after (4) in the root, it goes out, but leaves a weak (4) con- 
verted into a strong (1). 

he stendcS, he stend*$. he stent, he stands, 

he yte$, he yt*$. he yt, he eats. 

he scyteS, he scyt*3. he scyt, he shoots. 

he ridcS, he rid*^. he rit, he rides. 

[4.8.] 

132. (4) before (8) becomes (8). 

Lat.y ad-gero, ad-gravo, ad-gredior, 
ag-gero. ag-gravo. ag-gredior. 



ETYMOLOGY. 41 

A weak (8) before a strong (4) becomes strong. 



Lat., leg-o, 


leg-tus, 
lec-tus. 


ag-o, 


ag-tum, 
ac-tum. 


reg-o, reg- 
rec- 


-turn, 
-turn. 


Greek, 


Key- u. 


XeXsy 


-TCll. 


\iXSH-TCil. 




An (8) before (4) goes 


out. 








Lat., 


hoc-die, 
ho*die. 


rule 


■io, fulc-tum, 
ful*tum. 




indulg-ec 


\, indulg-tum, 
indul*sum. 


pasc-o, 


pasc-tum, 
pas*tum. 





Latin, noctes. Romaunt, noytes. 

Some that had not gone out in the time of the Latin 
authors, have since gone out from the Italian ; 

Lat., » actum, factum, junctum, lectum, rectum, 
Ital, a*tto. fa*tto. giun*to. le*tto. re*tto. 

So the Germ., fecht-en, licht, recht, ge-sicht, sch-lecht, 
are the English, fight. light, right, sight. slight. 
Pronounced fjt. r|t. rft, sjt. sljt. 

t in Maori becomes k in Hawaii ; as, 

Maori, te Atua . . . God. 
Hawaii, ke Akua . . God. 

(8) becomes (4). 
Lat., brachium (brakium) . Germ., kinn, kind, Goth., kius-an, 
Ital., braccio (bracio) . Eng., chin, child. choose. 

In Russian and Illyric, k becomes ^ (cj in the formation 
of the verbs ; as, 

cKaivarnt (skakate), to jump; cxaqy (skacui), I jump. 
In Hebrew, 3 (k) becomes q, undotted. 

The Latin j, most likely like ours, has become a gh (8) in 
Spanish ; 

Lat., Justus, judex, jocus. Sp., justo, juez, juego. 

ghusto, ghued, ghueger. 

In Swedish, k becomes c before soft vowels; and owe g, c, ch 
soft (j) and q, is g and k hard in Scotch ; 

Eng., bridge {brij), ridge (rij), breeches (brjeez), 
Scotch, brigg. rigg. breeks. 



42 ETYMOLOGY. 

[5.5.] 

133. s and r commute. 

The Germ., war, frier-en, hase, eisen, hat., honos, arbos, 
are the Eng., was. freeze, hare. iron. Lat., honor, arbor. 

A. -Saxon., ceos-an; Eng., choose. 
A Saxon, gecoren; Eng., chosen. 

In Persian, s h of the root becomes r in the imperative mood : 
kostan, to write ; kor, write thou. 

In Russian, a (z) changes into m. (j, French) ; 
and c (s) into m (59). 

KHfl3-b (knyaze), prince; KHHmecKin (knyajeskie). 

npocnm-b (prosjte) to ask; npomy (proscui), I ask. 

In the Cree language, " it should be observed," says 
Mr. Howse, in his Cree Grammar, " that on the coast, sh is 
used for s of the interior." This is precisely the difference of 
articulation of the Gileadites and Ephraimites, as shown 
by the token-word Shibboleth and Sibboleth, (Judges xii) : 
W became W in the mouth of the Ephraimite. 

s in Latin replaces the aspirate of the Greek ; 
Greek, v^o, hr^y i^xw, 

Lat., sub. septem. serpo. 

There is a tendency in the Teutonic languages to sigmation, 
or the receiving of an s ; 

melt, smelt. Germ., stumm, nies-en, 

knock, snock. Eng., dumb. sneeze. 

[5.6.] 

134. n before s goes out. 

Greek, tituv-gi, W/xov-c/, 

So it is clear that the a of tug, t£<7#, tSv, was originally 
followed by an n, which has gone out, as Thiersch shows that 
the participles 

TV7TTUV, TVTTOVffCt, TVTTOV, 

were formerly tutto-ov, tutto-vt^, tvkt-ov. 

So uv^civu, (IhcitTToivw, Xciy%a,\>u> peivbdvu, 
make ubly^au, $Ku7tvi*(7oq. hr^Zo^ai. (Act*§v\*(70[j*cii. 



ETYMOLOGY. 43 

n before s has gone out from the Latin; 

Lat., defensa, prensa, tensa, sponsus, 
It ah, defe*sa. pre*sa. te*sa. spo*so. 

Latin, permanserunt. Romaunt, perma*seron. 
In Finnic, n after r becomes r ; as, purrut for pur nut. 
So in Japanese, s becomes r after n. 

zonii for zonzi. — (Abel-Remusat's Japanese Gh'ammar.) 

r before / becomes I. 

Lat., interlego, perlucidus, 
intelligo. pellucidus. 

In Coptic, the Memphitic r becomes I in Bashmuric. 
In Cheremisian, I becomes r ; 

ortnjer for ortnjel, a saddle. 
So in Australian and Bisaya. 

" If a Kafir be given a word to pronounce with the sound 
of r in it, he will almost invariably give it the sound of V 3 — 
Appleyard's Kaffir Language. 

In Arabic, the / of the article becomes (5) before (5) . 
alsadirun, the sea; pronounced assadirun. 
alshajarun, the tree; pronounced ashajarun. 
alrahemun, mercy; pronounced arrahemun. 
s before n goes out ; 

audi*n' tu ilium ? Sati*n' sanus es ? 
ai*n' pergi*n'? — [Terence.) 

r becomes n ; 

Greek, $sivbg t Supov, 

Latin, dirus. donum. 

[5.7.] 

135. In Gothic, £A becomes s; 

qvi^A-an, speak; ga-qvm, spoken. 

In Turkish, the Arabic $ is sometimes pronounced s, and 

sometimes "$; ■. , . 

' kevsar, kevftar. 

So our z is, in Spanish, th ; 

plazo, mozo; platho, motho. 



44 ETYMOLOGY. 

[5.8.] 

136. A strong (8) before a strong (5) becomes strong. 

AeV~ w > hiy<j(a t AeW« (Af'Jw). 

sk shifts to sh ; 
Goth., fisks, skab-an, skap-an. Lat., camera. £«£., nux(nuks). 
Eng., fish, shave, shape. Fr., chambre. Germ., nuss. 

So in Swedish, sk becomes sh before the soft vowels 
sked, skida, skar, 
Jed, Jjda, Jer. 

In Russian and Illyric, r (g) commutes into ^k (j, French), 
and x (kh) to m (sq), in the formation of adjectives and verbs; 
Eon>, Bog, (God) ; 6o/KecKin, berjeskij, (godlike). 
naxami, pakhate, (to plough) ; namy, pascui, (I plough) . 

In Persian, kh of the verb-root becomes z and s, or sh, in 
the imperative mood; 

andakh-tan, to throw; andaz, throw thou. 
shanakh-tan, to know; shanas, know thou. 
farookh-tan, to sell; faroosh, sell thou. 

[6.6.] 

137. n before / becomes /. 

Lat., conloco, conlido, conludo, 
colloco. collide colludo. 

In Finnic, n after I becomes /; as, ol-nut, ollut. 
n commutes into I ; 

Gothic, himins, Germ., kind, 
Germ., himmel. Eng., child. 
In Welsh, II becomes I, by the Celtic canons of articulation ; 

Haw wenn. ei law. 

In Arabic, the 7 of the article before n becomes n, by 
tashdid with the solar letters ; 

alnas, (the man) ; pronounced annas. 

" The lower classes " (of Greeks) "have a dislike to v as the 
termination of a word ; they therefore, when the regular ter- 
mination requires the letter, divide it, and say to npocomo, 
and not vpoffwvov" &c. — David's Modern Greek Grammar. 
I goes out ; 

Lat., flumen, templum, pluma, 
Ital., fiume. tempio. piuma. 



ETYMOLOGY. 45 

/ commutes into r. 

Lat., nobilis, Sp., plata, 

Port. y nobre. prata. 

[6.7.] 

138. n before % (7) goes out. 

Gothic, anthar, munths, tunths, 
Eng., o*ther. mou*th. too*th. 
In Turkish, the n of the genitive case ending, goes out 
after a consonant ; as, 

baba-nun, of a father ; kopeg*un (not kopeg-nun), of a dog. 

[6.8.] 

139. In Basque, n sometimes goes out before c ; as, 

emdn, to give. ema*corra, give some. 

n before (8) becomes ng ; 

iv-*yivo(JLUi 9 iv-xaXeu, drink. 

iyy{vQ[LUi. iyMciheta. dringk. 

Lat., fing-o, fi*gtum, fictum. 

frang-o, fra*gtum, fractum, 

string-o. stri*gtum. strictum. 

In Bisaya, g before h, I, or g, becomes n. 
k before / becomes I ; 

Greek, eK-Kehu. eXXehu. 

k g before n goes out ; 

Eng., foreign, gnash, sign, 
forei*n. *nash. si*n. 
Eng., knell, knee, knife, knocker, know, 
*nell. *nee. *nife. *nocker. *now. 
In Spanish, c before / becomes a liquid I; 
Lat., clamo ; Sp., llamo. 

/ before k goes out ; 

stalk, talk. walk, 

sta*k, ta*k, wa*k, 

In Bisaya, c becomes ng. 

In Welsh, g becomes ng ; and in Irish, g is eclipsed by n, 
by the Celtic canons of articulation. 

Welsh, gwas, a servant ; fy ngwas, my servant. 
Irish, ar n-gort, our field. 



46 ETYMOLOGY. 

In Icelandic, n goes out before k or g ; 

Icel., dreck-a, stack, sprack, 
Eng., drink. stang. sprang. 



[7.8.] 

140. cs becomes ft. 

Lat., vox, felix, capax, 
Sp., voz. feliz. capaz. 



[8.8.] 

141. a strong (8) becomes weak, or an (8) goes out. 
Lat., rex(recs), ecclesia, benedico, dico, Gr., avfiepvu, 

Sp., rey. iglesia. bendigo. Port., digo. Lat., guberno. 

In Welsh, k becomes g in adjectives ; 

cariadus, (masc.) beloved; gariadus, (femin.) 

In Irish, g eclipses c ; as, ar g-ceart, our right. 

A more guttural (8) becomes less guttural ; 

Germ., brech-en, mach-en, wach-en, 
Eng., break. make. wake. 

Germ., dag, schlag-en, weg, 
Eng., day. slay. way. 

So in Turkish, beg is pronounced bey. 

In Welsh, c becomes ch, g, ngh, by the Celtic canons of 
articulation ; 

car agos, a near kinsman ; ei char, her kinsman, 
ei gar, his kinsman ; fy nghar, my kinsman. 

In Turkish and Mongolian, k at the end of a noun becomes 
gh in its genitive form ; 

kalpak, a cap; kdlpaghoon, of a cap. 

(8) has a tendency to become h. 
Lat., trah-o, once trag-o, as in tragtum, tractum. 
veh-o, veg-o, vegtum, vectura. 

So in Anglo-Saxon ; 
sec-an, to seek. socode, soc*de, soc*te. sohte, sought. 
And so in Finnic. 



etymology. 47 

Shifting of pure Breathsounds or Vowels. 

142. Vowel-sounds give place one to another in the forma- 
tion of words of a language, and in the formation of the 
languages or dialects of a mother speech. 

A vowel of a root-word more often becomes closer, but 
sometimes more open, in a breathsound of a compound 
word ; as, 

Lat.j arceOj coerceo ; carpo, decerpo ; calco, inc'wlco. 

menus, commus ; salio, desilio ; capio, decipio. 
salsus, inswlsus. 

«rma, inermus. 

tenax, pertmax; rego, corrigo; lego, deh'go. 
terra, extorris. 
tego, twgurium. 

similis, simzdo. hoc, adhwe. 

locus, illico. qaavOj exquiro. 

flZtdio, obedio. clawdo, conclwdo. 

plaado, explodo. 

In English. 

man (a, 5) . tinman, waterman, huntsman ; 

pronounced tinmm, watermin, huntsmin. (a, 4). 

land (a, 5). Lowlands, Lowlends ; 

Netherlands, Netherlands, (a, 4). 

coat (oa, 7) . waistcoat, waistcit. (oa, 4) . 

mowth (ou, 4.8). Portsmouth, Plymouth, Yarmouth, (ou, 4). 

143. "Hiatus." When in the formation of words two 
vowels are brought together, making what is called a hiatus 
or yawning, a clipping is mostly inserted between them. 

In the pronouncing of ' a arm/ ' a ape/ the sounds of the 
a a would coalesce, and make one unhandily long sound, 
instead of two distinct ones ; we therefore insert n between 
them, and say f an arm/ ' an ape.' 

The hiatus is resolved in different languages by different 
clippings. In Greek and Turkish it is resolved by n, as it is 
in English ; in Latin, as it is in some places in Illyric, a (4), 
d is inserted between the meeting vowels. 



48 ETYMOLOGY. 

In Greek, ouXocq $* e$u%e(y) Ikkqi;. 

And in Turkish, baM(n)un, of a father. 

In Latin, d, re(d)integratio. 

So in Hebrew, nijttf, a year, makes DJ(£l)3?ttf years, with J"l. 

In Kafir, s, I, m, and n are all intaken in sundry places 
against the hiatus. 



Etymological Figures. 

144. Etymological figures are sundry kinds of changings, 
and outcastings, or onsettings, of breathsounds and clippings, 
in the forms of words. 

Prosthesis is the onsetting of a breathsound or clipping at 
the beginning of a word. 

Epenthesis is the insetting of a breathsound or clipping in 
the midst of a word ; as, 

sies, for sis. Sp., intiend-o, for Lat. intendo. 
Dorset, beat, for Eng. beat (beet) . 

Paragoge is the onsetting of a breathsound or clipping at 
the end of a word ; as, 

Dorset, reapy, for Eng. reap. 

Apharesis is the outcasting of a breathsound or clipping at 
the beginning of a word ; as, 

nosco for gnosco ; biscop for episcopus ; 
nob for knob. 

Syncope is the outcasting of a breathsound or a clipping 
from the midst of a word ; as, 

Gk>*spel, for A.-Sax. Godspel; ha*s, for haves. 
Lat., periclum, for periculum. 

Apocope is the outcasting of a breathsound or a clipping 
from the end of a word ; as, 

Eng. sing, for A.-Sax. sing-an. Lat. die, for dice. 

Antithesis is the changing of one breathsound for 
another; as, 

Eng. stone, for A.-Sax. stan, Germ, stein. 



ETYMOLOGY. 49 

145. Two letters sometimes take each the place of the 
other by a shifting of place, called metathesis ; as, 

The A. -Saxon hveps, wseps, 
are the new English hasp. was;/?. 

Latin, m«rmor, Russian, mrcmor. 

Illyric, sav or vas, all. 



Formation of Words. 

146. Some kinds of words are notional words, and some 
relational words. 

147. The notional words betoken notions of being or action ; 
as nouns, adjectives, and verbs. 

148. Relational words betoken only relations of things ; as 
limiting pronouns, adverbs, and prepositions. 

149. Some notional words are root-words, as man, good, 
drive. Some notional words are derivative words, derived 
from root-words, as manful, from man ; goodness, from good ; 
drove, driver, drift, from drive. 

150. Some derivatives are formed from roots by only a 
mutation of breathsound or clipping, as drove, from drive ; 
band, bond, from bind ; girth, from gird ; and they are 
called stems. 

151. Some derivatives are formed from roots or stems by 
additions of breathsounds or clippings ; as driver, drift, from 
drive; binder, bundle, bandage, from bind; growth, grass, 
ground, great, from gro (grow) ; brown, bran, from bren, to 
burn. 

Derivatives may be formed from roots by the insetting 
of breathsounds into the middle of them, as in Bisaya. 

152. Relational words are also formed from roots; some 
from known roots of their language, and others from roots 
lost from their languages, or worn out of their early likeness 
to them, so that they cannot now be called notional words. 
Of such a kind is the preposition in, which is in Lat., A.-Sax., 

3 



50 ETYMOLOGY. 

Germ., Gothic, Dutch, and English, in; in Spanish and 
French, en ; in Greek, h ; in Portuguese, em ; in Welsh, yn ; 
in Irish, and in Icelandic, Danish, and Swedish, i : so that it 
is found, with little variation of form, in most of the Indo- 
Teutonic and Celtic languages, though its root is unknown. 

153. All our notions are notions either of action, as to 
bind, strike ; or notions of existence, as man, blow : and root 
verbs betoken notions of action, from which spring notions of 
existence ; so that the notion of action is the root of all other 
notions ; and roots are verbs. 

154. The notions of the activities of the mind, or of things 
which are not perceived by the senses, (abstract notions), are 
mostly formed from notions of the activities of the body, or 
of other objects which are perceived by the senses. 

hat., sapio, to discriminate by taste. 

sapio, to discriminate by the mind ; to be wise. 
Gothic, vit-an, to see ; to know. 
Greek, el'doo, to see ; to know. 
hat., pendo, to weigh. 
Fr., pemer, to think ; weigh in the mind. 
Germ., greif-en, to lay hold of; begreifen, to comprehend 

or lay hold of with the mind. 
Lat., audio, to hear; obedio (ob-audio), to obey. 
Germ., hbren, to hear; gehorch-en, to obey. 
Greek, auovoo, to hear ; vkcmovu, to obey. 

155. One kind of words is formed from another; as a noun 
from a verb, a verb from a noun or adjective, and an adjective 
from a verb or noun. 

156. The kinds of words from which others are formed 
are, 1. Noun. 3. Verb. 

2. Adjective. 4. Adverb. 

5. Preposition. 

157. If we take 1 for the noun-root, 2 for the adjective- 
root, 3 for the verb-root, 4 for an adverb, and 5 for a pre- 
position, we may form a set of handy expressions for the 
formation of compound words : thus, (1+1) would mean a 
word of two nouns, as railway ; (2+1) a word of an adjective 



ETYMOLOGY. 51 

and noun, as blackbird; (5+3) a word of a preposition and 
verb, as overcome. 

The words noun-root, adjective -root, and verb-root, mean 
the noun, adjective, and the verb without its ending for case, 
number, person, or tense, as domin of dominus, bon of bonus, 
reg of rego. 

158. The number of combinations that n things will form, 
as taken 2 and 2, is nX (c^r), which, in the case of five parts 
of speech, would be 5 X {—) or 10 ; so that we may conceive, 
at first thought, that the five kinds of words would afford ten 
forms of derivative nouns, and as many of adjectives and 
verbs. 

This, however, is not true, as each kind of word does not 
form derivatives with all the others, while some derivative 
nouns, adjectives, and verbs are not formed from one of the 
kinds of words with another, but from the roots of words 
only changed in sound or clipping, or with breathsounds 
which, are not now in the language as words of themselves, 
foreset or afterset to the roots, or inset into the middle of 
them ; as bond from bind, song -from sing, truth from true, 
wooden from wood, whiten from white, prattle from prate, 
ex -king from king, and 1-inm-acat from lacat, to go, in 
Bisaya. 

In the constructing of expressions for the formations of 
compound words, we may betoken by a dot a breathsound 
which is not now a word of itself; so that (1+.) would be the 
form of a word compounded of a noun -root and such a breath- 
sound afterset to it, as manly, golden ; and (2+.) and (3-f-.) 
would betoken such forms, as those of whiteness and runner ; 
(.+1) would betoken the form of ex-king ; and a figure with 
a dot over it might be taken as the mark of a word formed 
from a root with a breathsound or clipping set within it, as 
(3 ), which would betoken the form l-inm-acat, from the root 
lacat, to go, in Bisaya. 

English Nouns. 

159, Roots. Stems. 
From bear, bier. 

beat, bat. 

bind, band, bond. 

chop, chip. 



52 ETYMOLOGY. 

English Nouns, continued. 
Eoots. Stems. 

Ger., deck-en, to cover .... deck. 
A.-Sax., thecc-an, to cover . . . thatch (4. 8). 
Note. The numbers (such as 4. 8.) refer to the canons 
of clippings of the same numbers. 
Old Ger., dimpf-en, to smoke . . . damp. 
A.-Sax., thring-an, to squeeze . . . throng. 
Ger., fang-en, to catch .... fang. 

gape gap. 

gird garth, girth (4. 7.) 

Ger., gleiss-en, to shine .... glass, gloss. 

A.-Sax., graf-an, dig grave, groove (2. 2.) 

grow-an, grow . . . . . grass. 
Old Ger., han-an, sing, crow .... hen. 

hang hinge (4. 8). 

Goth., h*nt, to catch,! fhand, the catching limb. 

seize, hunt, J "\_houncl, the catching animr I 

hew hay. 

heave hoof. 

hold hilt. 

creep crab (1. 1.) 

Old Ger., limm-en, bleat lamb. 

„ liuch-en, to be favourable . luck. 

A.-Sax., melt-an malt. 

milt. 
A.-Sax., hnig-an, to bow .... neck (8. 8.) 

rest « . roost. 

ride road. 

A.-Sax., seer -an, shear, divide . . . share, shears, 

shire, shore (5. 8.) 

shape ship. 

shoot , . . shot. 

sing . song. 

sit seat. 

A.-Sax., sle-an, sleg-an, to strike . . sledge (4. 8.) 

strike stroke. 

streak, 
tell ........ tale, toll. 

weave woof. 

In Coptic, a change of voicing makes a noun ( 3 ) , as from 
roofj,, to shut in; tq^, a wall. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



53 



160. Of the same kind are root-nouns of the form of the 
root (3), for the effect of the action (3). 

to burn, a burn. to fall, 

call, call. hug, 

drink, drink. kick, 

There are many of these root-nouns in Icelandic, where 
they are formed by throwing away the ending a of the in- 
finitive mood ; as, 

kail, a call. fall, a fall. tal, a talk. 



a fall, 
hug. 
kick. 



Form (3+.). 

161. Another class of English nouns are formed from 
roots by an I clipping; their form is (3+.), or especially 
(3-f-*l), or that of a verb (3) with an ending (.), of no mean- 
ing alone. 

These nouns are mostly concrete ones, — names of things for the doing 
of the action (3), rarely the agent or effect of it. 



beetle, 
bridle? 



shove, 
shoot, 



bustle. 



spin, 

spit, 
spring, 



beat, 
A.-Sax., bred-an, 

to braid, 
A.-Sax., bisg-an,to 
occupy 
creep, cripple. 

A.-Sax., fleog-an, fly, j a | ^ e M%\ 

gird, girdle. 

Germ., hirt-en, keep, hurdle, 
lade, ladle. 

nag-en, f (nsegel) 

gnaw, bite, \ nail (8.) 

Germ., n'dh-en, sew, needle. 

prick, prickle. 

off, offal. try, 

A -Sax ml an fpilstre, tread, 

i pcsuc, j±.fj.,t>ng-ufi, 
A. -Sax., rad-an, guess, riddle. climb, 

A.-Sax., hreow-an, Trowel, stand, 

rue, be rough, \_ ruffle. wring, 

run, runnel. 

{settle, 
saddle. 



shovel, 
shuttle. 



spindle. 

spittle, 
springle. 

stand, **{«**■> 

stickle, 
stopple, 
steeple. 

teazle. 



stick, 

stop, 

steep, 

teaze, 



trend, f trendle, a 
bend, [_ snanow tub. 



{ 



trial, 
treadle, 
(stigle), 
stile. 

stool. 

wrinkle. 



sit, set, 



54 ETYMOLOGY. 

Upon this form we might have shapen other nouns of in- 
struments, for many whose names we have borrowed from 
other tongues. 

Fr.y allumette might be called a tinel, from tine, to kindle. 
strikle, a plectrum. 

Lat., (3+bulum), 



sto, 


stabulum. 


infund-o, 


infundibulum 


trud-o, 


trudes. 


ar-o, 


aratrum. 


al-o, 


alimentum. 



(3+is) (3+es), 

(3+tram), 

(3+inentum), 
(3+ela) cande-o, candela. (3+men) flu-o, flumen. 
(3+ ex) vert-o, vertex. 

Greek, (3+erov), ypa<p-w, ypacpeTov. 

(3+Tpov), 7rAv)y, 7rAvf>fTpcv. 

(3+o?) 5 Tpe%~w, rpoxog. 

In Kafir, (im+3), as im-alato, forefinger, index, from alata, 
to point. 

Magyar, (3+asz) . 

Japanese, (3+goto) ; kakigoto, a writing-tool, pencil. 



162. Form (3+5/). 

Other nouns of the form (3+.) are formed from roots by 
the ending of an st clipping. 

These nouns are mostly abstract, and mean the effect of the 
action (3). 

A.-Sax.,behdt-an, bid, behest. Ger.,ruh-en,vest? rest. 

roost ? 
bequeath, bequest, 

blow, blast. 

wane ? waste ? 

west? 

Ger., frier-en, freeze, frost. GotKthaursj . an ^ ^ 

to thirst. J 
grind, grist. 

A.S., treowi-an, ~\ 
A.-S., ga~an, go, guest. be faithful, > trust, 

hie, haste. believe, be sure. J 



ETYMOLOGY. 55 

163. Other primary nouns of the form (3+.) are made 
from roots, by an ending of a clipping of the class (4), d, t. 

They are mostly abstract, meaning the effect of the action (3). 

A.- S.j blcec-an, fade, blight. flow, flood. 

A. -S.j ceoivan, chew, cud. give, gift. 

cleave, cleft. A.-S., mag-an, be able, might. 

drive, drift. see, sight. 

A. -S.j fleog-an, fly, flight. stand, state. 

do, deed. weigh, weight. 

draw, draught. mow, mead. 

Goth. , fi-an, hate, feud. sow, seed. 

164. Other primary nouns of the form (3 -\-.) are formed 
from roots, by the endings m, n, and er. 

They are mostly concrete, more rarely abstract. 

165. Form (3 + *m). 

blow, bloom. sew seam, 

glow, gleam. tow, team. 

166. From (3 + en). 

gird, garden. bear, burden. 

167. Form (3 + er). 

, , /"butter, Goth., fodj-an, feed, fodder. 

A.S., bu-'un, dwell, bower! A - 8 -> sle ^ aH ' sla ^ slau S hter - 
Ger.j fang-en, take, finger. Goth., tundy-an, kindle, tinder. 

(3 + .). 

168. Another class of primary nouns of the form (3-|-.), 
are formed from roots ending in a clipping of class (8), by the 
conversion of it into one of class (4) — (canon 4. 8.) 

They mean the effect of the action (3). 
bak (bek), batch (bar). stick (stik), stitch (stic;). 

break (brek), breach (brjc). speak (spjk), speech (spje). 
dig, ditch (dir). 

smack (smak), smatch (smctq). wake (wek), watch (wor). 



56 ETYMOLOGY. 



169. Form (S + th.) 

Another class of primary nouns of the form (3+.) are 
made of roots, by the ending th, (d) . 

They are mostly abstract, rarely concrete nouns. 



Goth., 


ar-an, till, 
bear, 


earth, 
birth. 


A.-Sax., 


brced-an, make broad, 

brew, 

dip, go deep, 

dear, 

die, 

foul, 


breadth. 

broth. 

depth. 

dearth. 

death. 

filth. 


A.-Sax. > 


heel- an, 


health. 


Icel.j 


nicer -a, praise, rejoice, 
long, 


mirth, 
length. 


A. -Sax., 


slawi-an, be slow, 

steal, 

strong, 


sloth. 

stealth. 

strength. 


A.-Sax. 4 


treowi-an, (certum esse,) 
well, weal, 
weor^San, become, 
young, 


truth, troth, 
wealth, 
worth, 
youngth, youth 



This ending -th, is -iths and -itha in Gothic, *"§ in Anglo- 
Saxon, and in German t and end ; and in Icelandic, S, d, t 
and -mid. 

A.- Sax., tredw-ft, truth, troth. 

Germ., jug-end, youth. ge-burt, birth. 

Icel., leingft, length. breidd, breadth. dypt, depth. 
vitund, knowledge. 

Goth., ga-baurths, birth. diupitha, depth. 

In Kafir, (im+3). In Magyar, (3-f-al), hal, die; halal, death. 

(3-f-at), el, live; elet, life, &c. 



ETYMOLOGY. 57 

170. Form (3+%). 

Verbal Nouns. 

Roots with, the ending ing, make another set of nouns 
called verbal nouns, of the form (3+.) ; as, 

an ( offering ' for sin. a man of f learning.' 

the ' washing' of regeneration. the ' singing' of birds. 
They are abstract nouns. 

This ending was, in A. -Saxon, ung, ing ; in German it is 
ung ; in Dutch, ing ; in Icelandic, ing, ung ; in Gothic, tins. 
A.-Sax.j halgung, 

Germ., heiligung, > a hallowing. 
Dutch, heiliging, J 
Icelandic, sigling, a sailing. 

djorfung, a daring. 
Gothic, ustaikneins, outtokening, manifestation. 

In Latin the ending ing of (S-\-ing) is often represented 
by *tio, tura, sus, turn, *go ; and in Greek by (fig, vj. 



Lat., em-o, 


emp-tio. 


land-o, 


laud-atio. 


dic-o, 


dic-tio. 


mut-o, 


mut-atio. 


gest-o, 


gest-atio. 


solv-o, 


soln-tio. 


capi-o, 


cap-tura. 


col-o, 


cul-tura. 


nasc-or, 


na-tura. 


fulci-o, 


ful-tura. 


derid-eo, 


deri-sus. 


CUIT-O, 


cur-sus t 


cens-eo, 


cen-sus. 


eveni-o, 


even-tus. 


consul-o, 


consil-ium. 


move-o, 


mo-tus. 


gaud-eo, 


gaud-ium. 


vert-o, 


vert-igo. 



The Latin supines in um and u seem to be nouns of this 
form, (3-\-us). Ledum ire, is ad ledum ire, to go for a 
reading ; and difficilis fadu, is difficilis in fadu, difficult in 
the doing. 

The noun (3-\-i?ig) with its concrete meaning, as that of 
'collection' and ' section,' when they mean not the act of 
collecting or cutting, but the instrument of the action or the 
lot of things effected by it, is often represented in Latin by 
nouns of the form (3-f-mentum), and (3-f-raen), (3+ium). 

al-o, ali-mentum. lig-o, lig-amentum. 

doce-o, docu-mcntum. movc-o, mo-mentum. 

jug-o, jug-umentum. orn-o, orn-amentum. 

3§ 



58 ETYMOLOGY. 

ag-o, ag-men. 

can-o, can-men, car-men. (Can. 3. 6.) 

cant-o, cant-am en. 

cert-o, cert-amen. 

flu-o, flu-men. 

gest-o, gest-amen. 

medic-o, medic-amen. 

nuo (to nod), numen ; a nodding, thence 

a will of the Deity, 

for-o, for- am en. 

lib-o, lib-amen. 

teg-o, teg-men. 

conjung-o, conjugium. 

nub-o, nuptiee. 

relinquo, reliquiae. 

In Greek the English noun (3-\-inff) is often replaced by 
(8+fl-iff), and (3+$), (3+«), (S+og), (3+f*«). 

/3«/v-0, $d,ffig. ficcvr-oo, fia(pv\. 

$s -open, Ssvi<Jig. 5e/x-«, Jo/xi}. 

pu-0, piw. ypcc<p-u t ypxtpv). 

Key-u, hoyog. /Svjpu, ^vjjxa. 

jfe-w, poo?. /3pwVjt-0, j3pw|x«. 

Nouns of the form (3+07?) are mostly abstract nouns, and 
those of the form (3+oc), (3+/x«), are mostly concrete, as the 
effect of the action (3) . 

The form of this noun in Japanese is (3-(-me) , as awaseme, 
a joining; fmguieme, a hole, perforation. 

The noun (3+ing) is also sometimes represented in Latin 
and Greek, as it is in Hindoostanee, by the infinitive form of 
the verb ) as, 

Lat., Quid est hujus vivere ? 

Greek, to rpsxsiv, running. 

Hindoostanee, jana, a going. 

In Turkish the form of this noun is (3+iJ), (3+um), 
(3+ ah), (3+gui) ; and in Persian it is sometimes (3-f-j), 
as gerwj, talking or conversation. In Japanese it is the 
bare root. 



ETYMOLOGY. 59 

Many forms of these nouns are found in Arabic, in which 
they are called masdars. In Magyar they are (3+as). 
InLapponic, (3-f-o) ; Hawaii, (3+na) ; Kafir,. (i+3), (ili+3), 
as i-vusa, an alarm, from vus-a, to rouse. 

In Latin there is a form of verbal noun (3+um) . 

regno, regnum. 

imperio, imperium. rod-o, rostrum, 

colloquor, colloquium. vituper-o, vituperium. 



171. . Form (1+.). 

Diminutive Nouns. 

The names of small or pretty things of their name are 
called diminutive nouns. 

In the Indo-Teutonic tongues their form is mostly (1+.)j 
sometimes (2-K) . "We have three or four of these forms in 
English and other Teutonic tongues. 



Forms (1+ling) or (2+ling.) 

duck, duckling. goose (gooseling), gosling, 

dump, dumpling. gray, gray-ling, 

found, foundling. suck, suck-ling. 

lord, lordling. 

Icel., baklingr, a little book, pamphlet. 

Du.j Reveling, loveling, darling. 
Ger., theuer-ling, A.S., deor-ling, Eng., (dearling) darling. 

A.-Sax., afteling, a young noble, prince. 

Swedish, Idrling, a little learner, or apprentice. 

Some of these nouns are rather anomalous, as, although 
they are of the form (1+ling), they are not diminutives of 
the ground- word, but of some other : 

year, yearling. 

In Magyar these forms are (1+acs), (1-j-ka). 
In Lapponic, (l+*tz). 
In Finnic, (1+inen), (l-|-kha). 



60 ETYMOLOGY. 

172. Form (1+kin), Ger. {l+chen), Icel. (l+ki). 
Eng., (l-\-key), (l-\-eri), Icel. and Sco. (l+«). 

cat, catkin, 
man, man-ikin. 

nap, nap-kin. 

Germ., magd (maid), mad-chen. 

Icel. 3 sveinki, a swainkin, boy. 

donkey, dun-key, the little dun animal, 
monkey, man-key, the little man. 



A. -Sax. } coc (cock), 
maid, 


cycen (chicken), 
maiden. 


cat, 


kitten. 


Icel., bdl (a dwelling), 


f baeli, a lair or sty, 
\ little dwelling. 


Sco., lass, 


lassie. 


foal, 


(foaly), filly. 



173. Form (l+ock). 

dunnock, the little dun (bird), sparrow. 

whelk, wheelock ? the little wheel. 

174. Form (1+*/). 

We have nouns of this form, which seem to be diminutives. 

A.- Sax., crest (crate), cradle, 

corn, kernel. 

A.-Sax., cneow (joint), knee, knuckle. 

A.-Sax., [neb) nib, nipple. 

A.-Sax., hof, Germ., hof (house), Eng., hovel, 
pot, pottle, 

rib, ripple. 

A.-Sax., snaca, snake. A.-S., sncegel, snail, 
throat, throttle. 

Upon these forms we may fairly shape other diminutives. 

An omnibus, instead of taking for its name a Latin pro- 
noun, in the ablative or dative case, might have been called a 
' wainling ' or ' wainel/ or f vanling.' 

regulet, kingling. 

rosette, roseling, rosel. 



ETYMOLOGY. 61 

It is rather markworthy, that the *l clipping, which is the 
token of the diminutive in one form of our diminutives, is 
found as a like token in other Indo-Teutonic languages; 
as in 

Lat., toga, tog-ula. castra, castellum. 

*fc ratio, rati-uncula. filius, fili-olus. 

ager, agellulus. lapis, lapillus. 

ramus, ramus -cuius. 

Pers., mard, mard-al. 

In some other languages a clipping of the eighth class 
comes into the diminutive ending : 
Greek, (l+<™os)> ficc<riXi<ry.og. 
Lat., (l+culus), cani-culus. 
J risk, (l-|_og), duille-og, a little leaf. 
Russ., (1-L.jk), ^om-HKiD (dom-jke), a small house. 

Hindoos., (1+ce, &c), (deg-ce), a little cauldron. 

Turkish, (\-\-jek), (l~\-cek), (babajek) , little father. 

(kitabcek), a little book. 

Many of these languages have other endings for diminutive 
nouns, and in Arabic the form is not (1+.), but a new form 
of the noun (1) . 

In Bretonne, the form is (1-f-ecg). 

In Bisaya (1+1) , tauo-tauo, a little man, a man-man. 

(ro >) as oa -ro-balay, a small house, from balay, house. 

175. Form (1+.) 

Bad or Unworthy Nouns. 
In Latin (1-f-aster), poetaster. 



176. Form (1+.) 

Nouns of Likeness, or Madeness, or Artificiality. 

Some languages have a most handy kind of nouns (1+.) 
for the names of things, like or made like the noun (1), and 
therefore the names of artificial things. 

In Bisaya they arc formed by repetition of the noun ; as, 
tauo, man; tauotauo, a mock-man, a made-man, an image; 



6.2 ETYMOLOGY. 

bagol, shell of coco; bagolbagol, a mock-shell, the skull. 
Sometimes of the form (1) by insetting into it the breath- 
sound in, as bato, stone; b-in-ato, hard (plane-tree), stonelike 
(tree) . 

In Cree their form is (1+kon). 

niska, goose ; nisk-ekon, an artificial goose for a decoy* 

wdtee, a hole in the ground, cavern; wdtee-kon, a made- 
hole, cellar or vault. 

mistick, tree ; mistick-oo-kon, a made-tree, a pole or flag- 
staff set up. 

In English this form is (2+1), and sometimes becomes 
(mock+1), or (sham+1). 

177. Collective Nouns. 

Some languages have forms of nouns called collective 
nouns, for lots, or sets, or collections of things of a name. 
Germ., ge-birge, a range of hills, from berg, a hill. 
Bisaya, ca-|-(l)+han, ca-tauo-han, a crowd, from tauo, man. 
Finnic, (1+sto), faiva, ship; laivasto, fleet. 
Lapponic, (1+loge). 

178. Nouns of Past and Coming Time. 

In Lapponic there is a good form for nouns of coming 
time (1+asas), as irg, bride; irg-asas, intended bride. 

In Icelandic, (1+efni), mdgs-efni, intended son-in-law. 

In English we have taken Latin words, quondam and ex, 
for these nouns, as quondam-pupil, ex-king of France. 

In Latin, present, consul ; past, vir consularis, a man who 
has been consul. 

179. Form (1+.). 

AUGMENTIVE NOUNS. 

The English language does not own any augmentives, or 
forms of the noun for large or ugly things of their name. 

In Italian their form is (\-\-one) (\-\-accio), &c, and we 
have borrowed some of them into English. 

ballo, bale. . ball-one, balloon. 

sala, hall. sal-one, saloon. 

tromba, trumpet. tromb-one, trombone. 



ETYMOLOGY. Od 

180. Form (l+ing), (2+ing). 

The Teutonic languages have some nouns of the form 
(\-\-ing), (l-\-ung), (2-{-ing), which are not diminutives. 

A.-Sax< r feorft, fourth ; feorfting, a farthing. 

I eel., fjorftungr, a fourth part. 

A. -Sax., here, a troop, shoal; herring. 

Icel., Sjdland (Sealand) ; Sjdlendingr, a Sealander. 

IceL, ferhyrn (four-horn) ; ferhyrningr, a fourhorning, 

square, 
white, whiting, (fish). 



181. Form (3+.). 

Noun of Agent. 

The noun of the agent mostly takes in English the form 
(3+er). 

bowl-er. read-er. 

build-er. writ-er. 

In A. -Saxon the ending is -ere; German and Dutch, -er ; 
Icelandic, *r, -ari, -i. 

A. -Sax., redf-ere. Germ., rdub-er, robb-er. 

Du., maaker, maker. 

Icel., brefber-i, brief-bearer, letter-carrier. 
hird-ir, herder, herdsman. 
skrif-are, writer. 

In Latin this noun takes the form (3-\-tor), (S-\-a), (3+o), 

(S+ius), (l+ista), (l+istes). 

In Greek, {S+evg), (3-f-T^p), (3+T*fc). 

ag-o, ac-tor. incol-o, incol-a. 

scrib-o, scrib-a. 

imit-o, imit-ator; f^o fudms • lana ' lanista - 

9 ' cithara, citharistes. 

Greek, yfa-o^ui, beget; yovevg, parent. 

hv\Ksca } destroy; ^Av)t^, destroyer. 

fiuivw, go ; /i«T«p, a goer. 

ypoitpu, write; ypuqevg, writer. 

jtpi'vw, judge; apirrig, a judge. 



64 ETYMOLOGY. 

In Irish the form is (3+oir) . 

millce-oin, destroyer. 

In Russian, (3+me.7ii>), &c. 
In Turkish, (3+jjj). 
(3+jj). 

bak, look; balqjj, spectator. 

dilen, beg; dilenjj, beggar. 

In Greek, as in Arabic and Persian, the active participle 
often takes the place of the agent-noun. 

6 tvktoov, striker, active participle of tvktu. 

In Japanese the form is (1+ts). yomi-ts, reader. 

kaki-ts, writer. 

In Arabic, kotib, writer, active participle of kataba, to 
write. 

In Cheremissian its form is (3-\-oza) . 

In Kafir, (wm+3+i) , um-teng~i y a trader, from teng-a, 
to buy. 

In Finnic, (3+k), (3-\-uri). 

In Mongolian, (3+^i). 

In Basque, (3-{-tzalle) , (3+/e), (3-\-iaria). 

These nouns often take in English the form (1+1), where 
one stands for the matter under the agency ; as glass-blower, 
shoe-maker. 

In Magyar, (I+05), asztal, table; asztalos, table- wright. 
(l-\-dsz), hal, fish; haldsz, fisher. 

182. A liker or fancier of a thing, as a science or an art, 
or flowers or animals, the Greek (phil + 1) is in Bisaya 

(maqui+1). 

In Australian, (1+1), buy a, fish; kuyameyu, a fisherman. 

183. Some languages have agent-nouns of two forms ; one 
for the semelfactive or one-time agent, and another for the 
habitual or many-times agent. 

Under the sentence, ' John is the writer of that letter/ the 
writer is one-time agent ; but under the sentence ' John is a 
writer in a lawyer's office/ he is habitual agent. 



ETYMOLOGY. 65 

One-time Agent. Habitual Agent. 

Greek, 6 ypoL-itetQ, . . . . 6 ypatpevg. 

Bisaya, (mag-soraf), 6 ypcc^ag, a writer,! f {mag-so-soraf) , 
as the writer of a letter. J \ a writer officially. 

Mongolian. . . . (3+ a participle), . . (3 + <$« 

Basque (3 + fe)? .... (3 + taria). 

In the Cree language the place of the form (1+er), the 
name of the habitual agent, is taken by the frequentative form 
of the verb : 

Mth&sku, he lies. 

ka kithasku, he lies with iteration ; he is a liar. 

184. Forms (1+m/), (2+m/), &c. 

Noun of Place, etc. 

There are in English a few nouns of the form (3-f-m/) or 
(1+y), or (1+m/) or (2+m/), betokening the place of the 
action or agent, and collections of things. 

{l+ery). 

lott-ery, shrubb-ery, rook-ery, swan-ery. 

(2+ery). (3+en/). 

fin-ery, brew-ery, forg-ery. 

(1+?/), smithy. 

In Latin these nouns are found under the forms (l-f-*n*wm), 
(l+etum), (l-\-ile), &c; as 

aviarium, arboretum, suile. 
Basque 3 (l-\-queria) . 

185. Forms (3+*/), (3+cr), &c. 

Noun of Instrument. 

The nouns of the instrument are of very irregular formation 
in English. Some of them are of the form (3+*/) and (3+er). 



gird, girdle. 


shoot, 


shuttle. 


lade, ladle. 


spin, 


spindle. 


prick, prickle. 


stop, 


stopple. 


dust, duster, grave, graver. 


rule, ruler. 


scrape, scraper. 


snuff, 


snuffers. 





66 ETYMOLOGY. 

Some are in the form of the verb-root, as 
bellpull, shoelift, a press. 
Some are not formed from the root, as 
gun, hook, pen, spoon. 
Latin, (S-\-trum), &c. aratrum. 
Greek, (3+e/bv), (3+Tpov), yputpeTov, 7rXvj^rpov. 
In Arabic the noun of the instrument has a set form shape n 
from the trilateral verb, as miftah, a key; from fat a ha, to 
be opened. 

In Hindoostanee its form is (3+.) . 

186. Nouns of Quality. 

We have a large class of abstract nouns of quality of the 
form (1+.) and (2+.). 

(1+hood), (2+hood); (1+ship, (2+ship). 

boy, boy-hood. woman, womanhood. 

child, child-hood. God, Godhood (Godhead). 

(2+hood) hardy, hardi-hood. likely, likeli-hood. 

fellow, fellow-ship, seaman, seaman-ship. 

heir, heir-ship. son, son-ship. 

owner, owner-ship, workman, workman-ship. 

A.-S.fWeorft (honour) worth; weorSscip, worthship, worship. 

The ending -hood is in A.-S., -had. 





cild-hdd, 


child-hood. 




mceden-hdd, 


maiden-hood - head 


Germ., -heit ; 


kind-heit, 


childhood. 


Du., -held; 


kinds-heid, 


childhood. 


Sived., -het ; 


sdllhet, 


happi-hood (ness) . 



The ending -ship is, in 

A.-S., -scipe ; frednd-scipe, friendship. 

Germ., -schaft ; freund-schaft, \n- i -i • 

Du., -schap ; vriend-schap, J P* 

Dan., -skab ; ven-skab, friendship. 

Swed., -skap ; vdn-skap, friendship. 

Icel., -skapr ; fjand-skapr. foeship. 

M.Go.,-iskei ; barnwiskei, child-hood. 

In Latin a form of this noun is (l-\-itia), (l-\-atus) ; and 
in Greek (l+£/#), (1+^uvv]). 
hat., amic-us, magister, consul, puer, 

amic-itia. magistr-atus. consul-atus. pueritia. 



ETYMOLOGY. 67 

Greek, irciTp-os, eruip-eiv. 

Lap., (l-\-ivuddt) . 

Bisaya, (ca-\-l), tauo, man; pag-ca-tauo, manhood. 

Finnic, (l-\-us), (l-{-ute), &c. 

Basque, (I-\-tasiina) . 

In Irish, (1+**), (1+acs). 

car aid, friend; cdirdeas, friendship, 

taomeac, chieftain; taoimgeacc, chieftainship. 
Russian, ( 1 + chibg ), 

corls^t), slave ; cocJs^ciiibo, slavery. 

Persian, (1+e). 

(mard), man; (marde), manhood. 

In Hindoostanee, and also in Arabic, though it is a Shemetic 
language, the form of this noun is (!+.)♦ 



187. Form (1+.) (1+1.). 

Patronymics. 

Many languages own a set of surnames for the designation 
of children of the same father or family. 

They are mostly of the form (1+.) or (1+1), with the 
name of the father for a ground word. 

There are a few of such names, such as 

Johnson, Richardson, Williamson, 
that are now fixed as lasting surnames of families in English. 

In Welsh it is {Ap-\-Y), and in Irish (ilfac+1) and 
(Mic+l) ; as, 

Ap-David, Ap-Hoel. 

Mac-Donald, Mac-Cormac. 

Domnall Mac Emin, Mic Cainnaich Moir. 

In Greek it is (1+*^) masculine; (l+'V), (l+«0* &c - 
feminine. 
NeflTopAtis, son of Nestor ; iEneades, son of iEneas. 
NfflTcptej daughter of Nestor. Laertias, daughter of Laertes. 



DO ETYMOLOGY. 

In Russian, (l-|-oBHq-b), (l-f-cBiiq*), (l-L-nqi,), for men; and 
(1+OBHa), (1+eBHa), (l-f-Hnma), for women. 

Alexander jvanervjc. . . . Alexander, son of John. 

Yakerv Termjc James, son of Thomas. 

Anna Alexandruvna, Anna, daughter of Alexander. 

In Finnic, (1-^-nen), Vs son; (l-\-tar), Vs daughter. 

188. The Teutonic languages, and some other tongues of 
the Indo -Teutonic division, such as Greek and Persian, are 
markworthy for their ready formation of an unlimited store of 
nouns and adjectives by composition of others. This compo- 
sition is the pride of these languages, as it is a power whereby 
they can form new words to endless length and with wonder- 
ful ease, for the taking up of new objects and notions as they 
arise to the mind. 

The form of the nouns is, 



189. 



air-balloon, 

bedstead, 

cupbearer, 

daybook, 

firepan, 

goatherd, 



(i+i)- 

hawthorn, 

kneepan, 

landlord, 

malthouse, 

nightwatch, 

penknife, 



railway, 

sheepfold, 

thunderbolt, 

watchman, 

windmill, 

woodcock. 



The German and Dutch, with the Icelandic and other 
Scandinavian tongues, are rich of these compounds. 

Icelandic, vagnsldd, wheel-rut; mjafi-drecka, mead-bowl; 
fjand-maftr, foe-man. 

The following Icelandic ones of the form (\-\-efni), for 
which we have no good representatives, are very useful : 

konungs-efni, king's-heir, or successor; i.e., crown-prince. 
prests-efni, priest that is to be. 
mdgs-efni, future son-in-law. 

These compounds are found also in Celtic languages, and 
in Persian, Hindoostanee, &c. 



ETYMOLOGY. 69 

Irish, laim-dia, hand-god ; i.e., a teraph or household-god. 
Persian, jini start, fairyland; gulzar, rosebed. 
Hindoost., nishanburdar, standard-bearer; gh rasal, 
horse-place, i.e. stable. 

The Greek is also very rich of these compounds : 
fieXovTuaig. vuv<TTub[LQ\). 

The Latin is weak in the formation of nouns of this shape, 
although it owns a few of them. Their place is mostly taken 
in Latin by a noun and adjective, as servilis tumultus, or by 
nouns of the form (1+.) . 

190. Form (1 + 1). 

arti-ficium, capri-mulgus, homi-cidium, legum-lator. 

The following may be classed under the form (1+1), if 
they do not belong to the form (1+3). 

/3ov7rA^£. artifex, auspex. fidicen, judex, 

manceps, opifex, remex, tibicen. 

191. Form(l+.) 

patria, fatherland; eques, horseman; pedes, footman. 

192. Form (1 + 1). 

We have in English a set of compound nouns of the form 
(1+1), in which the ground-word is in the possessive case : 
batsman, huntsman, sidesman, 

boatsman, landsman, sportsman, 

craftsman, seedsman, kinsman. 

193. Form {l + dom). 

We have- a few compound nouns with the ending dom, 
which is a primary noun of Anglo-Saxon and the old form 
of the English noun doom, from the verb dem-an, to judge or 
rule ; and it therefore means a judgment, or ruling. 

Its form in Gothic is thum ; in Icelandic, ddmr ; and in 
Danish, dom. 

wisdom, A.-S., wisdom. kingdom, A.-Sax., cyne-ddm. 
Icel., visddmr. Germ., konig-thum. 

Dan., viisdom. 



70 ETYMOLOGY. 

This form would sanction a good English word ' sheriffdom ' 
instead of the mongrel noun sheriffalty, and ( mayordom ' for 
mayoralty. 

194. English writers have lately shown a disposition to 
slight the formation of the noun (1+1), and to take in its 
stead the noun and a mongrel adjective, in imitation of the 
Latin idiom, and write f tid-al wave' for tide-wave, and ' postal 
regulations' for post-office regulations. 

We believe this is to do our language great harm, — to kill it 
in one of its most growing limbs, to tie it where its free action 
is most needful, to weaken it where alone it shows increasing 
strength; and it is worthy of belief, that men who might 
know the unbounded vigour which the Teutonic and Greek 
and Persian languages hold in their nouns of the form (1+1), 
and epithets of the form (2+1), and the weakness and un- 
handiness with which the stiffer Latin, for the want of them, 
follows her mighty sister the Greek in strains of poetry, 
would be unwilling to slight, if not to kill, so great an element 
of vigour and growth in their mother-tongue. 

To substitute a few expressions of (2+1) for nouns of the 
form (1+1), will be to puzzle learners and speakers of English 
for a useless end; since, while we find that we must say 
' tidal wave' for tide-wave, we do not know whether tide-waiter 
should be c tidal waiter/ or whether ' postal-regulations' is a 
pattern for postal-office, and postal-boy, and postal-horse ; or 
how many or few of our nouns of the form (1+1) are to be 
broken up ; and thus we may wrongly take or leave the ex- 
pressions teaal-spoon, sugaral-tongs, bedal-stead, lapal-dog, 
inkal-stand, buttonal-hole, shirtal-sleeve, mousal-trap, and 
pinal-cushion. 

Noun of Place. 

English Form (1 + 1). 

195. In the Teutonic languages the noun of place oftei 
takes the form (1+1). 

bleaching- ground, ringing-loft, 

dining-room, shearing-house, 

drying-loft, standing-place, 

mooring- ground, thrashing-floor, 

riding-school, watering-place, 

bakehouse, playground, tanyard. 



ETYMOLOGY. 71 

In Latin the noun of place usually takes the form (3+.), 
as oratorium. 

We have a few nouns of place of the form (3+m/), or 
(\+ery), (l+y) : 

brewery, rookery, swannery, smithy. 

In Arabic the noun of place is of a set form, derived from 
the verb : 

sharaka, to rise; mashrik, place of rising, the east. 

Besides the noun of place of an action, there is the noun of 
place of a noun. In the Teutonic languages it is mostly of 
the form (1+1), as sheepfold, inkstand, cornfield, cowstall, 
bookshelf, timber-yard, water-tank. This noun is sometimes 
called by Arabic grammarians the noun of abundance, and in 
Arabic is of the form (1+.) • 

In Latin it is often of the form (l-{-*riii?n) , {\-\-etum), 
(\-\-itium) , as serarium, arboretum, 

sestuarium, hospitium. 

Finnic, (l-\-kho) . 

In Turkish it is of the form (I+lik), {l+lek) : 

tonuzlek, a pig-place, pigsty. 

mefalik, place of oaks, oak-grove. 

Form (1+3). 
hat., auceps, (avis-capio) ; tibicen, (tibia-cano) . 

196. Form (2 + 1). 

We have nouns of this form : 



blackbird, 


redstart, 


greatcoat, 


whitesmith, 


Latin, 


sequanimitas, 




decempeda. 


Greek, 


fyX-iepevg, 




IVG-fiovh'ltt. 



Gentile Nouns. 

197. To this form belong our gentile nouns Englishman, 
Welshman, Scotchman, Irishman. 

These nouns are represented in Irish by adjectives or nouns 
of the form (\-\-ac) ■. 

Alban-ac, Scotchman. 



72 ETYMOLOGY. 

In Latin by (l-\-icus), (\-{-ius), (l-{-*nus), (1+e/ms) ; 
Troicus, Khodius, Romanus, Carthaginiensis. 

Greek, (1+tyiq), (l+iog), {l+nog) 3 {l+evg). 
Turkish, (l+lu), (1+1 j). 

Istambolu, an inhabitant of Estambol, — Constantinople. 

Misrlj, an Egyptian. 

In Arabic, and Hebrew and Koordish, (1+j) : 
Mizrj, an Egyptian. 

Hebrew, WIN, an Edomite. Lapponic, (l+latz). 

In Coptic, (rem+1), or (rm+1). Finnic, (l-\-lainen) . 

198. Form (3 + 1). 
Go-cart, fly-bobs. 

199. Form (4 + 1). 
English, welfare. 

Latin, nemo, nefas. 

200. Form (5 + 1). 

There is a large body of nouns of this form in the Teutonic 
and Indo-Teutonic languages. 

English, afterthought, onset, forethought, forerunner, 
overseer, outrider, oversight, understanding, undertaker, 
downsitting, uprising. 

Latin, abdicatio, adventus, anticipatio, circumscriptio, de- 
positor, excursio, interregnum, obsessio, persecutor, prsecordia, 
submissio, superstitio. 

The following are of the form (5+1), unless they should 
rather be classed under the form (5+3) : 

comitia, comes, conjux, advena, infans, provincia. 
Greek, eiffotioQ, endows, ivtiv^iu, %poy,oi%<av i 7rpoVA^\p/£. 

201. Form (2+.). 

There is, in most languages, a great body of abstract nouns 
of quality of the form (2+.), (2-\-ness). 



ETYMOLOGY. 73 

English, blackness, greatness, dulness, 

whiteness, smallness, stubbornness, 

goodness, thickness, hardness, 

badness, thinness, softness. 

The ending -ness was, in Anglo-Saxon, -nys, ~nis ; in 
German it is niss ; in Icelandic, -ni. 

A.-Saa?., blindness. Icel., blindni, blindness. 

In Latin, the form of this noun is (2-{-*do), {2-\-igo), (2-j-a), 

(2+monium), (2+itudo), (2+*tas), (2+itia), {2+ies), (2+o'r). 
dulcedo, rubigo. 

scientia, duritia. 

sanctimonium, parcimonium. 

lassitudo, longitudo. 

segritudo, > altitudo. 

coecitas, capacitas. 
durities. 
sequor, calor. 

In Greek this form of (2+.), is (2+otvjj), (2+^^?), 
(2+/«), (2+<ruv*i). 

$ap(Scip-icriJ,6t; t u'ilpe-iu. 

In Russian, (2+c»te), (2+este), (2+stbo), (2+sna), &c. 

In Irish, (2+acc) . 

In the Cree, (2+win) . 

In Japan, (2-\-sa), sigei, thick; sighe-sa, thickness. 

In Cheremissian, (2-\-ja). 

In Kafir these nouns are mostly of the form (ubu-{-3), as 
ubulumko, wisdom ; from lumk-a, to be wise. 
Lap., (2~\-wuadt). Bisaya, (ca-f-2). 

The Bisaya language distinguishes, by two nouns of the 
form (2-\-ness) , an inward and essential quality from a received 
and accidental one ; as, 

ca-tamis, essential sweetness, as of sugar ; 

quina-tamis, received or accidental sweetness, sweetenedness, 
as of tea. So of the wetness of water, and the wettedness of 
the hands by it. 



74 ETYMOLOGY. 

In some languages, as in Tonga, an adjective is used as a 
noun of quality. Latin, malum, evil. 

202. Form (3 + 1). 
English, go-cart. 

Greek, <pih6<70<pc$. 

203. Form (3 + 4). 
A cast-away. 

204. Form (3 + 5). 
English, pinafore. 

205. Form (5+.). 

innings, 
offing. 

206. One verb-root may yield many nouns of its own clip- 
pings, or kindred ones, with changes of its vowel, as well as 
nouns of the form (3+.) 

So the root scyl-, to separate or split off, as in thin lamina, 
yields scale, a thin plate. 

shell (5. 8.), a hollow scale. 

skull, ditto. 

shilling (5. 8.), a little scale. 

shield (5. 8.), a scalelike thing. 

skill, power of separation or discrimination. 

A verb-root yields adjectives as well as nouns : 
scyl yields shallow; scalelike, thin, 
grow, gro-; Latin, ere- (as in cresco), yields 

growth. 

grass, what grows readily or mostly, 
ground, the growing earth, 
green, of the colour of growth. 

207. The following Table shows a few roots, with different 
nouns which they yield : 



ETYMOLOGY. 



75 



Boots. 



Bear 

{Goth., bair-) 

Bind 



Bite . 
Blow. 
Break 



Trow 

treow-ian), 
Drive 



Go, gang . . . 
Gird 



Grub 

(J.S., graf- ; 
G., grab-). 

Shear 

(A.S., seer), 

SHt 

Cleave 



Hide? 



Ride 
Spin 



Noun 
of Agent. 



bearer . . 
binder. . 

biter. . . 
blower . 
breaker . 



Abstract 
Noun. 



driver . , 

goer, . . 
ganger. 

girder . . 



grubber, , 
engraver, 

shearer, . 
sharer. 

slitter . . , 
cleaver . . 



rider. . . 

spinner, 
spinster, 
spider. 



birth . . . 
binding. . 

biting . . . 

blowing. . 

breaking, . 
breach. 

troth. . . . 

driving . . 

going, . . . 
gait. 

girding . . 
grubbing, 



shearing, 
sharing. 



slitting . 
cleaving 



Noun 

of End or 

Effect. 



bairn, child 
burthen. 

bond, . . . 
bondage, 
band. 

bite, bait. 

blast. 

breach, 
brack, 
breakage. 

truth, 
trust. 



drift, . 
drove. 



riding 



gang. 

girth, . . . 
garden, 
yard. 

grave, . . . 
groove. 

share, . . . 
shire, 
shard. 

slit, slate. 

cleavage, 
cleft, 
cliff. 

hat, hood, 
hut. 



Noun 
of Instru- 
ment. 



bond, 
band. 



Noun 

of 
Place. 



girth, 
girdle. 

graver. 



shears, 
plough- 
share. 



drove. 



road. 



76 etymology. 

208. Universal Noun. 

Most men feel at times the want of a word, which they 
may put in the place of a name which they may have 
forgotten or may not know, or the name of something with- 
out a name,- In English this word is thing, from the Saxon 
thinc-an, to think ; so that a thing is whatever may breed or 
hold the thought. In Latin it is res, from reor, to think. 

209. PERSON. 

The telling of a thought has mostly relation to three 
things ; one that tells it, another to which it is told, and a 
third of which it is told. 

The teller of the thought is called the first person ; the 
thing to which it is told is called the second person ; and the 
thing of which it is told is the third person. 

210. GENDER. 

Gender is kind, as to sex. 

Nouns are in English, as well as in Turkish, Persian, and 
Japanese, and other languages, of three genders, — the mas- 
culine, the feminine, and the neuter. 

211. The name of a male thing is of the masculine gender; 
as, man, horse. 

212. The name of a feminine thing is of the feminine 
gender ; as, woman, cow. 

213. The name of an inanimate thing, that is, neither male 
nor female, as town, tree, stone, is said to be of the neuter 
gender. 

214. In English, as well as in Turkish, Persian, and Japanese, 
the gender of the noun is the same as the sex of the thing 
which it names ; but in most of the Teutonic, Celtic, Sclavonic, 
and Shemetic tongues, as well as Latin and Greek, and the 
new speeches which have arisen out of them, many, if not 
all, of the names of inanimate things are made of the mas- 
culine or feminine gender, so that their gender does not 
answer to the sex of the things which they betoken, but they 



ETYMOLOGY. 77 

take it mostly from their own forms, or the kinds, but not the 
sex, of the things understood under them. 

Thus regnum, a kingdom, is of the neuter gender, because 
it ends in -um; and in Greek, Koyog, a word, is masculine, 
because it ends in -og ; and in German even m'ddchen, maiden, 
is neuter from its ending, -chen ; and aiceann, furze, is mas- 
culine in the south of Ireland, and feminine in the north. 

215. The sex of animate things is imputed to inanimate ones 
by a figure of speech, called personification, which strengthens 
a language, so that it begets in the mind more lively and 
graceful notions of the activities and relations of things. 

Thus, even in English, a thing of the neuter gender is 
sometimes designated by a masculine or feminine pronoun; 
as when we say of the sun, "he rejoices as a giant to run his 
course;" of a ship, "she was wrecked;" of England, "she 
has many colonies." 

216. In Grammar, the masculine gender is more worthy 
than the feminine; so that, for a person of unknown or of 
undefined sex, we may use the pronoun he ; as, " if any person 
will not work, neither should he eat." 

On the same ground, we take for a masculine noun the 
word man for the genus homo, male and female ; as, 

" If any man (in Greek rig) will come after me, let him 
deny himself, and take up his cross daily, and follow me." — 
(Luke ix. 23.) 

"Nevertheless, man (Hebrew ^7?) being in honour 
abideth not : he is like the beasts that perish." (Psa. xlix. 12.) 

" Cease ye from man, (Hebrew ^7? ) whose breath is in 

his nostrils," ("fetta).— (Isaiah ii. 22.) 

From inattention to this rule, some often use a plural 
pronoun instead of a singular one for a person of either sex, 
and would say, " If any person, or any one, call, tell them I am 
engaged." 

Yet we have the authority of some such construction as 
this, grounded upon the original Greek, in our version of the 
Epistle of James ii. 15, 16 : 

" If a brother or sister be naked, . . . and one of you say 
unto them, Depart in peace : be ye warmed and filled," &c. 



78 ETYMOLOGY. * 

So in Latin, {Jacob's Latin Reader, Fab. 1 2, 1. 4,) 
Uterque causam cum perorassent suam. 

21 7. A first person mostly uses a neuter pronoun for a young 
child or an animal of a sex unknown to him ; as, ' the child 
has fallen and hurt itself;' c there is a pretty lamb : don't 
frighten it; 9 { there is a pretty bird or moth : do not kill it. 9 

In German, the noun ( kind/ child, and in Greek ncitliov, 
child, is of the neuter gender. So in Illyric. 

218. In Latin, the names of animals of unknown sex, 
epicene nouns, are mostly of the gender imputed to nouns 
of their form, rather than of the neuter gender ; as, 

passer 3 a swallow, (masculine) ; aquila, an eagle, (feminine) . 

219. In many languages there are two words for our word 
' man ; ' one for man, the genus man ; and another for man, 
as distinguished from woman. 





Grenus Noun. 


Sex Noun. 


Latin, 


homo. 


vir. 


Greek, 


av6pW7TO£. 


uvrip. 


Hebrew, 


D 7£- 


tihg. 


German, 


mensch. 


mann. 


Kafir, 


umntu. 


indoda. 



220. In language, the sexes of things are distinguished in 
different modes ; as, in English, — 

1st. By different words. 

Man. 



bachelor, 


maid. 


lord, 


lady. 


boy, 


girl. 


man, 


woman. 


brother, 


sister. 


master, 


mistress. 


father, 


mother. 


nephew, 


niece. 


friar, 


nun. 


son, 


daughter. 


husband, 


wife. 


uncle, 


aunt. 


king, 


queen. . 


wizard, 


witch. 


lad, 


lass. 


sir, 


madam. 



Latin, maritus, husband; uxor, wife. 







ETYMOLOGY. 




Quadrupeds 


and Birds. 


buck, 


doe. 




horse, mare. 


dog, 


bitch. 




ram, ewe. 


hart, 


roe. 




stag, hind. 


bull or 0Xj 


cow. 




boar, sow. 


cock, 


hen. 




gander, goose. 


drake, 


duck. 




sire, dam. 


Latin, taurus, 


vacca. 



79 



2nd. By an ending, such as the ending -ess, (adopted from the 
French,) for the feminine in English. 

Man. 



abbot, 


abbess. 


mayor, 


mayoress. 


baron, 


baroness. 


patron, 


patroness. 


benefactor, 


benefactress. 


peer, 


peeress. 


count, 


countess. 


poet, 


poetess. 


emperor, 


empress. 


priest, 


priestess. 


governor, 


governess. 


prince, 


princess. 


heir, 


heiress. 


prophet, 


prophetess. 


host, 


hostess. 


shepherd, 


shepherdess 


jew, 


Jewess. 


sorcerer. 


sorceress. 




Brutes. 






lion, 


lioness, 






tiger, 


tigress. 





3rd. By sharpening of the vowel and the ending -en. 

fox (Germ, fuchs), fyxen (Germ, fiixin), vixen. 

In Latin, and some other languages, the sex is often be- 
tokened by a change of ending ; as, 

Latin, servus, a he-slave ; serva, a she-slave. 

imperator, emperor; imperatrix, empress. 

Germ., konig, king; konig-in, queen. 

Russian, nacmy-x-b, shepherd; nacmy-mKa, shepherdess. 

Coptic, ouro, king; ourer, queen. 

Hindoos., beetaw, son; .... beetai, daughter. 

dhobee, washerman; dhobin, washerwoman. 



80 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Arabic, adeem*un, great man ; adeem-at-un, great woman. 
Hebrew, t£^N, man; TWN, woman. 

Coptic, Jam, father-in-law ; fame, mother-in-law. 
son, brother; sone, sister. 



4th. Of the Form (1+1). — By composition of a noun with 
another noun, or a pronoun or adjective. 

man-servant, maid-servant, cock-sparrow, hen-sparrow, 
male-child, female-child, he-goat, she-goat. 

So in Welsh, colommen wrryw . a male pigeon. 
colommen fenyw . a hen pigeon. 

Turkish, er ogldn . , 

kiz ogldn . . 
erkek arslan . 
deeshee arslan 



Persian, 
Hindoos. 



sheer-i-nur . 
sheer-i-madah 

nur gaoo . . 
madah gaoo . 



boy, male child, 
girl, female child, 
lion, he-lion, 
lioness, she-lion. 

lion, he-lion, 
lioness, she-lion. 

bull, he-bullock. 
Cow, she-bullock. 



Japanese, wo-iniu, dog, he-dog ; me-iniu, she-dog, bitch. 
So in Mongolian. 

221. The English ending -er of the noun of the agent, is 
rightly -ster for a female agent. 

The ending -ster is the same in Dutch, and was estre or 
ystre in Anglo-Saxon, in which 

sang -ere, meant singing-man. 

sang -estre, (Dutch, zangster,) singing- worn an. 

backster, is the feminine of baker. 



brewster, 


3) 


33 


brewer. 


spinster, 


)) 


33 


spinner. 


seamster, 


1) 


33 


seamer, or sewer. 


maltster, 


}) 


33 


malter. 


huckster, 


1) 


33 


hawker. 


tapster, 


it 


33 


tapper. 


whitster, 


3) 


33 


whiter or bleacher of linen 



ETYMOLOGY. 81 



NUMBER. 



222. The number of a noun, is the number of the things 
which it marks. 

223. A noun in a form which marks one thing of its name 
is said to be of the singular number, as man, book. 

224. A noun in a form which marks two things of their 
name is of the dual number. 

225. An English noun in a form which marks more things 
than one of their name is in the plural number. 

226. Nouns are made to mark one thing, or two or many 
things, of their name by different endings or forms ; as, 

boy, boys; man, men. 

musa, musae ; regnum, regna ; rex, reges. ** 

Koyoqy Koyoi ; xpirvig, xpirut. 

In English, the plural form of a noun is mostly made from 
its singular shape by an ending of a hissing clipping (s) ; as, 
hat, hats; garden, gardens; house, houses. 

227. When the singular shape of the noun ends with a 
strong clipping, the hissing ending of the plural shape is strong ; 
as, lip, Hps; death, deaths; ruff, ruffs. 

hat, hats; brick, bricks; crop, crops. 

228. When the singular shape of the noun ends with a 
weak clipping, the hissing ending of the plural shape is 
weak; as, 

tub, tubs (tubz) ; nod, nods (nodz) ; 
love, loves (luvz) ; egg, eggs (egz) . 

229. When the singular shape of a noun ends with a hiss- 
ing clipping (5), the hissing ending of the plural shape takes 
a vowel (e) before it : 

kiss, kisses ; lash, lashes ; 

box, boxes; church, churches. 

230. When the last breathsound of the singular shape of 

4 § 



82 



ETYMOLOGY. 



the noun is long, and ends with a strong 2 (/), the rough (/) 
clipping and the hissing ending mostly become weak in its 
plural shape ; 

knife (neif), knives (neivz) ; loaf (lerf), loaves (lervz). 

life (leif), lives (leivz);- wife (weif), wives (weivz). 

231. Some English nouns, and many German ones, take 
their plural form by sound -shifting (a change of vowel-sound 
with the same clipping) ; as, 

man, men; mouse (mows), mice (meis) ; 

tooth (turb), teeth (tjb) ; goose (guis), geese (gjs) ; 

louse (lows), lice (leis) ; foot (fmt), feet (fjt). 

So, in German, gott, God ; gotter, Gods, 

nacht, night ; nachte, nights, 

baum, tree ; baume, trees, 

floss, float; flosse, jloats. 

There is some sound-shifting in the formation of plural 
nouns in the Celtic languages. 

Welsh, march, horse ; 
bran, crow ; 
ftbrdd, road ; 

Irish, bapd, poet ; 
rpocan, brook; 



meirch, horses, 
brain, crows, 
ffyrdd, roads. 

bamb, poets. 
]- pot am, brooks. 



We have left to us a few nouns that take their plural form, 
like the weak nouns of Anglo-Saxon and German, with the 
ending -*n : x, oxen. 

brother, brethren.* 

cow, kien, kine.* 

More of these weak plural forms linger in Scotland and 
the west of England ; as, 



Scotch, 



shoon (shoen), shoes. 



A. -Sax., 
Western, 


. een, 

eage, eye; 

housen, 
cheesen, 


eyes. 

eag-an, (Scotch een,) eyes 

houses, 
cheeses. 


Germ., 


graf, reeve; 


graf-en, reeves. 



These words are made by sound- shifting, as well as the ending -en. 



ETYMOLOGY. 83 

232. In Spanish, Portuguese, and French, the noun takes 
on a hissing clipping like the English for the plural form. 
In the Sclavonic tongues it takes sundry endings. 

In Turkish, -ler ; as at, horse ; atler, horses. 
In Persian, -an or -ha; as-goo?^, wolf; goorgan, wolves. 

bal, wing; balha, wings. 

233. In the Shemetic languages some nouns take on end- 
ings for the plural, and others take their plural form by 
sound- shift ings. 

234. In Japanese there is a singular plural form of the 
noun made by a repetition of its singular shape, though often 
with a change of its first clipping : 

feeto, man; feetobeeto, men. 

koonee, kingdom; kooneegoonee, kingdoms. 

235. The Shemetic languages, such as Hebrew, Arabic, and 
Maltese, with Greek, Tonga, and possibly Welsh, have a very 
handy form of the noun and pronoun, called the dual form, 
for two things of their name : 

Hebrew, TO «T DHTttj 
it •• i»: •-■!■-: 

but the two-hands are the two-hands of Esau. 

These dual forms are most handy for the giving of lively 
notions of the twofoldnesses of nature and art, and espe- 
cially of man and other animals; as, the two breasts, arms, 
shoulders, hands, thumbs, legs, hips, knees, feet, eyes, ears, 
nostrils, cheeks, temples, jaws, horns, and wings; the feelers 
of insects and mandibles of birds; the two sexes; the two 
sides and two ends of geometrical solids ; two pages of a leaf ; 
two valves of a shell ; two posts of a door or gate ; two wheels 
of an axle ; two oars of a boat, and others. 

236. In the telling of numerical quantities of things, a 
singular noun is often given for a plural one'; as, three dozen 
(dozens) of oranges ; the pig weighed twelve score (scores) ; 
a hundred head (heads) of cattle. 

So, in "Welsh, ' pymtheg gwraig/ fifteen woman (women) ; 
and in Hindoostanee, 'dus ghorut/ ten woman (women). 

In Magyar, 'three man/ 'one pair of shoe;' ' these stock- 
ing are blue/ 



84 ETYMOLOGY. 

237. Some nouns, for stuff which is not usually known in 
individualities, are not much known in a plural form; as, 
butter, dirt, fat, honey, wax ; and others, for lots made up of 
individualities, or individualities made up of matching mem- 
bers, as bowels, goods, snuffers, tongs, are not much known 
in the singular form. 

Some names of single towns and places are of the plural 
form, as ' AGvjva:/, Cannae, Wells (in Somerset), Sevenoaks (in 
Kent). 



238. The Plural of Excellence. 

In many of the Eastern languages, and some of the 
Western ones, a person of high rank, or one thought worthy 
of tokens of high estimation, is designated by a plural noun 
or pronoun instead of a singular one, and by a pronoun of 
the third person instead of the second ; as, in English, 

' Will you {wilt thou) sit down ? ' 
' I thank you (thee) J 

In French, f Voulez-vous (for veux-ta) me faire le faveur?' 
1 Je vous (te) remercie/ 

German, ' Wie befinden sie sieh ? ' How do they find them- 
selves ? for How dost thou find thyself? — How art thou? 

We (I), Victoria, queen of Great Britain, &c. 

239. In some languages, as the Bisaya, Hawaii, and often 
the French, the singular and plural number are off-marked 
only by articles or pronouns, as the noun is of the same orm 
for both numbers : 

Bisaya, an tauo, the man ; 

an manga tauo, the men. 

French, le livre, the book ; 
les livres, the books. 

Hawaii, ke kanaka, the man; 
na kanaka, the men. 

In Lapponic, by enallage, the plural is sometimes em- 
ployed for the singular ; as, f heads ache for me/ for c my 
head aches/ 



ETYMOLOGY. 85 



CASE. 



240. Case is a most weighty and powerful division oi 
Grammar, wielding with great might the Syntax of lan- 
guages ; but although its laws are highly worthy of our search, 
they are as yet ill understood. 

In a disquisition upon case it is needful that we should 
clearly understand what is meant by the word case ; and as 
the laws of case hold mainly upon the noun, we shall seek 
them more safely with a clear conception of the meaning of 
the word noun, 

The weightiness of case may be readily conceived from the 
large body of rules for the syntax of case in the Latin 
Grammar. 

A substantive or noun, (old French nom, Latin nomen,) by Murray's 
and Johnson's definitions, is ' the name of any thing.' 

In Welsh it is called enw, name ; in Hindoostanee, Persian, 
and Turkish, eesm, name; in Russian, mmh. (emia), name; 
in Japanese, na, name : in German and Dutch it is called 
nenwort and nennwort, name-word : and in Edward the Sixth's 
Latin Grammar it is said that 

"A noun is the name (nomen, ovofta) of whatsoever thing, being, or 
quality we see or discourse of." 

Thence we are to conclude that a noun is the name of a 
thing, but not a thing of the name ; and that it is a word, and 
not a thing. 

It may be thought, at first, that it is indifferent whether we 
take a noun to be the name of a thing, or the thing known 
under it ; but such a confusion of notions would greatly baffle 
us in our search into the nature of case. 



241 . Having learnt what we are to understand by the word 
' noun/ we have to find the now received or the true meaning 
of the word ' case/ which is not of easy discovery. 

As it is needful to know whether a noun is a word, or else 
the thing known by it, so the first question on case is, 
whether it is an accident of the noun, or else of the thing 
named by it, or of both of them. 



86 ETYMOLOGY. 

The following definitions of case, from different Grammars, 
will show that it still needs elucidation. 

They are not given to show that grammarians have written bad 
definitions of case, but that they are not yet of one mind as to the 
nature of it. 

(1) King Edward the Sixth's Latin Grammar : 

" Nouns have six cases (casus, a falling,) in each number. 

" A noun in the nominative case (casus rectus, ttt&giq opQrj,) was 
considered by the ancient grammarians as a line perpendicular; and 
in the other cases (casus obliaui) as gradually declining or falling from 
the perpendicular. 

" To decline a noun is to make it pass through these cases or 
fallings." 

Now it does not seem so likely that the name case was first 
bestowed to betoken the falling away of a noun from its first 
form, the nominative one, since it is not so clear in what the 
ablative form l labore ' is fallen farther from ' labor ' than is 
the genitive f laboris,' or in what the accusative ' pedes ' is 
fallen farther off from 'pes' than the dative 'pedibus;' or 
why the ablative 'pedibus' is fallen wider from 'pes' than 
the dative ' pedibus,' when ' pedibus ' and ' pedibus ' are of the 
same form. 

(2) Flower's English Grammar : 

" Case is the different termination or ending of a noun, and is used 

to show in what relation icords stand to each other." 

i 

(3) Bosworth's Anglo-Saxon Grammar : 

"A case is a change in the termination of a noun, &c. to express 
their relation to the words with which they are connected in the 
sentence." 

(4) O' Donovan's Irish Grammar : 

" By case is understood a certain change in the form (generally in 
the termination) of a noun to denote relation." 

(5) Bromsgrove Greek Grammar : 

" The cases are distinguished by their endings." 

(6) Heard's Russian Grammar : 

" The declension of substantives by case is nothing but an expres- 
sion of the relation which one object bears to another, marked by 
some variation of the final letters of the word itself." 



ETYMOLOGY. 87 

(7) Vieyra's Portuguese Grammar : 

" The Portuguese nouns have no variation of cases." 

(8) M'Culloch's English Grammar : 

" As the only relation of nouns which is expressed in English by a 
change of termination is that of ownership or possession, there are, 
strictly speaking, only two cases, i. e. nominative and possessive." 

(9) Jones's Persian : 

" The Persian substantives, like ours, have but one variation of case. 
" The other cases are expressed, for the most part, as in our lan- 
guage, by particles placed before the nominatives." 

(10) David's Turkish : 
" Les Turcs ont six cas." 

(11) Yates' Hindustani: 

" The cases are eight : the nominative, genitive or possessive, instru- 
mental, dative, objective or accusative, the ablative, the locative, and 
the vocative." 

(12) Jones's Arabic, in his Hindustani Grammar : 

" Nothing can be more easy than the declension of Arabic nouns, 
there being only three cases." 

242. From the foregoing definitions we must understand 
that the case of a noun is some one out of sundry of its case- 
forms, and that it takes its sundry case-forms with different 
endings ; and therefore that there is nothing out of a noun, — 
such as a preposition or other word, — that can make its case, 
and that a noun has no more cases than it has case-forms ; 
and so that case is to be understood of words only and not of 
things, inasmuch as a noun has been shown to be only a word 
and not a thing. 

Now the English noun has only two case-forms, the no- 
minative and possessive, and therefore, as we are told by 
definition 8, it has only two cases; yet Murray's Grammar 
says, " English substantives have three cases, the nominative, 
possessive, and objective;" and it defines the objective case 
as one that "expresses the object of an action or of a relation." 
Murray tells us that he is aware the idea of case has a re- 
ference to the termination of the noun, and that he had " long 
doubted the propriety of assigning to English substantives an 
objective case ;" and yet, as he could not conceive that under 



88 ETYMOLOGY. 

such an expression as 'the bay horse kicked the white horse/ 
both words ' horse ' were in the nominative case, barely since 
they were in the same form, so he was driven to allow, against 
the received definitions of case, that case was not wholly in 
the form of the noun. 

The Hindoostanee Grammar reckons the cases to be eight, 
and yet tells us the dative is always the same as the nomina- 
tive; so that if cases be only sundry forms of the noun, 
then the forms which are called the Hindoostanee dative 
and nominative cases are one, and the language has only 
seven cases. 

Then Lennie's Grammar gives case as "the relation one 
noun bears to another, or a verb or preposition," and tells us 
there are three cases, the nominative, possessive, and objective; 
and that the objective denotes the object upon which an 
active verb or a preposition terminates. 

Now there is reason to think, that when this definition and 
some fore-given ones tell us that case is the relation which 
one noun bears to another, or is a form of the noun for the 
showing of its relation to any other, they mean, after all, that 
case is the relation or the token of the relation of a thing, and 
not of a noun, to another ; for we have seen that a noun is 
not a thing itself, but only its name, and therefore only a 
word ; and the relation of a word to another cannot be any 
thing more than its relation to it in its order in the sen- 
tence, or its length or loudness, or some other accident or 
quality of a word ; and yet it is clear that this is not the rela- 
tion which the definitions mean. 

Thence Heard's Russian Grammar tells us that declension 
is "an expression of the relation which one object bears to 
another," marked by some variation of the final letters of the 
word itself. 

But if case be the expression of the relations of things only 
as they are betokened by endings of nouns, then the English 
has only two cases, and Murray and other grammarians are 
wrong while they hold that it has three ; and if case be the 
expression of the relations of things by any case-tokens what- 
ever, then English has as many cases as Latin, or Hungarian 
or any other language, since we tell with our nouns and case- 
tokens all the relations of things which are marked by the 
case-endings of other tongues. 

If case be the relation of one thing to another, then, as 



ETYMOLOGY. 89 

long as a noun is the name of a thing in the same relation to 
another, the noun must be in the same case ; or otherwise the 
name of a thing may shift its case, while the thing itself does 
not shift its relation ; so that case is not a true token of the 
relation of a thing : and yet, under both of the expressions, 
( I have lost the pin's head/ and ' I have lost the head of the 
pin/ the pin bears the same relation to its head, though in the 
first, pin would be in Mr. Murray's possessive case, and in 
the other in the objective case. 

Richards' Welsh Grammar : 

" As to cases, there is but one termination throughout the singular 
number, and another in the plural ; so that they* are only distinguished 
by prepositions set before them, or in their construction." 

Yeates' Hebrew Grammar : 

"The cases of nouns are not distinguished, as in Latin and Greek, 
by terminations, but frequently by prefixes. 

" Strictly speaking, there is no genitive case in Hebrew." 

But if cases be forms of nouns, then Mr. Yeates must be 
understood to say that forms of nouns are frequently distin- 
guished by prefixes; i.e., the forms of nouns which do not 
vary in form, are distinguished by what is not of their forms, 
which is unintelligible. 

This seems to be the plight of case as grammarians now 
understand it ; and yet among all the clashings of their defi- 
nitions we find some truth, and in all these confused outlines 
of case we catch glimpses of true forms. 

Case, it seems allowed, betokens the relations of nouns, 
which we see must mean things; and Mr. Yeates confesses 
that there must exist in Hebrew some contrivance to convey 
an idea of the same logical relation of words [things) which 
in Western languages is expressed by the genitive case ; and 
it will be found that there are, in all other languages, con- 
trivances to tell all the logical relations of things which are 
betokened by the case-forms of words in Latin, or Greek, or 
Hungarian. 

There is reason to believe, that the first grammatical 
meaning of 'casus' was the colloquial meaning of 'case' in 
English, — the logical plight of any thing, or its logical relation 

* If the word they means cases, and cases are forms of nouns, then we are 
told that the forcns of nouns are distinguished by prepositions set before them, 
the meaning of which is not very clear. 



90 ETYMOLOGY. 

to other things, or to circumstances affecting it, or what 
befalls a thing. ' Casus/ in Latin, meant a plight or case, or 
accident. 

" . . . . nemo dolorem 

Fingit in hoc casu." — Juvenal, Sat. 13. 

" Et quod in hujusmodi casu accidit, periti ignaris parebant." 

Quint. Curt., lib. 4. 

" Quove casu extinctus est ignaris." — Quint. Curt., lib. 6. 

Cado, the root of ' casus/ means to fall, or to happen or 
fall out, to befall, — like our word ( fall/ the German ( fallen/ 
and the Dutch vallen ; — as, ' it fell upon a day/ ' lest some 
evil befall him/ ' it fell out otherwise : ' and therefore the 
verbal noun, ' casus/ means a plight or case, like the German 
c fall ' in the expression f in dem falle/ in that case. 

So in Arabic, Persian, and Hindoostanee grammar, a case, 
called hal or halat, from the verb hala, ' to come or happen/ 
means ' a logical plight or case of a thing.' 

Hindoostanee: 'Hur kowee apnee{hal)sai wakif half 

' Every one is aware of his case/ 
Persian: ' Roz deegur haman(hal) wujood girift, 
' On another day the same case, or circumstance, took place.' 

Thence it seems likely that case, which most of our gram- 
marians bind to the noun (the name of a thing), was at first 
understood as the case or plight of the thing known under the 
name, or as the logical relation of things to other things or 
their activities; and that the name case, at last, went over 
from things to the case-forms of their names, inasmuch as the 
case-forms were the tokens of the cases ; as a writing of the 
case of a man at law with another is called l his case/ 

But whether case meant at first the case of a thing or the 
form of its name, still, as it will be found, and has been 
allowed, that the cases of nouns (word-cases) are tokens of 
the logical relations of things (thing-cases) ; and as the thing 
wields its case-token, while the case-token does not wield the 
thing ; so it is clear that the understanding of word-case must 
come from that of thing-case. 

Some may think it indifferent whether we take cases as the 
cases of nouns, or of the things named under them; but in 
seeking the laws or nature of case through sundry languages, 
we soon find that such an opinion is wrong. There is as 



ETYMOLOGY. 91 

much need of the distinguishing of the case of a thing from 
the case-form of its name, as there is for a discrimination of 
an original straight line in perspective from its representative 
in the outline. All that is true of original straight lines is 
not true of their representatives in the draught, for while two 
original straight lines may be parallel, their representatives 
may rightly approach each other; and so, while the logical 
relations of things must be as many in England as in Russia 
or Hungary, the case-forms of their names may be fewer in 
English than in Russian, and fewer in Russian than in 
Magyar. 

We must therefore discriminate between the cases, or 
plights, or relations of things, and the case-forms or case- 
tokens of their names ; and we shall need sundry names for 
them. We might call the logical relations of things e cases/ 
or e plights/ or ' thing-cases/ or l natural- cases ;' and we 
might call the relation -forms, or tokens of their names, ( case- 
forms/ or ' name-cases/ or ' speech-cases/ or ' case-tokens/ or 
1 case-wordings/ 

Now a man may have as many relations to a tree, or a 
house, or a fire, or its activities, or a thing may be conceived 
in as many relations to other things or their activities, in 
England, as in Russia or China, or in any other land ; and 
inasmuch as all nations can tell, by breathsounds, or case- 
tokens in or with the nouns of their languages, any of such 
relations of things, so far any one language may have as many 
speech-cases, or at least case-tokens, as another. 

It is true some languages have fewer case-forms or case- 
endings of nouns (in German fallendungen) than others, as 
the English has less than the Latin, and the Latin than the 
Finnic tongues; but what they want in case-forms or case- 
endings, they make up with case-tokens of other kinds, such 
as prepositions or postpositions, or such as the kasra, the 
token of the genitive case, in Persian, or such as the allo- 
cation of the noun, as that of the accusative case, in English. 
And the Latin needs case-tokens besides its case-forms almost 
if not quite as much as the English ; for the relations of the 
man to the tree, under the sentences ' vir in arbore est/ and 
' vir longe ab arbore est/ are shown, not by the case-form 
arbore, which is the same in both of the sentences, but by 
the prepositions in and ab. 

Upon all these things we may conclude that it may be well 
to call the logical cases or relations of things ' cases/ and all 



92 ETYxMOLOGY. 

the kinds of speech -tokens of those cases or relations 'case- 
tokenings/ reserving the name ' case-forms/ or f case-endings/ 
to case-tokenings in the noun, while case-tokenings in general 
are the case-tokens either in the nouns, as endings, or with 
the nouns, as prepositions, affixes, and others. 

Now while it may be believed that a clear insight into the 
case-tokenings of speech should be sought through that of 
the natural cases of things, it may be thought that the gather- 
ing and comparing of all the logical relations of things, taking 
in all their relations of place, space, direction, size, hardness, 
time, motion, rest, cause and effect, agency and patiency, and 
all other qualities, accidents, and activities, would be an end- 
less task, inasmuch as they would be found to be almost 
innumerable. 

The species of animals, and vegetables and minerals, are 
almost innumerable, and yet the mind has made it possible, if 
not easy, to know them and comprehend their natures and 
qualities by a classing of them after their likenesses and 
differences ; and as the logical cases or relations of things 
have been the subjects of thought and speech to millions upon 
millions of men, even to all generations of them from the 
creation till now, it is worth while to inquire whether the 
mind of man has classed them by any laws of their likenesses 
and differences, and whether the case-tokenings of speech 
show any thing of such laws. 

243. Now in Latin, a thing with an activity from it, and a 
thing with the quality of another rated from its own, are both 
classed under the same case -tokening : 

f Yir venit ab urbe,' (ablative), 

1 Argentum vilius auro/ (ablative) . 

This may be thought accidental. Let us look at the Greek : 
it is so there : 

" ut 'AOvivwv," (genitive), 

' from Athens/ 
<( (TCHpiarepoi; tqv StdciaaciXov, (genitive), 
' wiser than (from) the teacher/ 
It is so in Eomaunt : 

" Pan de Dio es loqual deisende del eel/' (preposition de) 

' The bread of God is that which descends from heaven/ 
' l Sies tu maior del nostre paire Abraam ? " (preposition de) 
' Art thou greater than (from) our father Abraham V 



ETYMOLOGY. 93 

It is so in Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and French, in one 
of two modes of rating the quality of one thing by another : 
' ' Contenersi di ridere," (preposition di) . 

' To refrain from laughing/ 
" Piu ricco di quest' uomo," (preposition di) . 
' Richer than (from) this man/ 

Spanish : 

" He venido de mi casa," (preposition de) . 

1 1 am come from my house, from home/ 
" Es mas discreto de lo que parece," (preposition de) . 
' He is wiser than (from) what appears/ 

Portuguese : 

"Que pareceo salir do mar profundo," (preposition de } d'o) . 

' Which seemed to rise from the deep sea/ 
" He mais prudente do que parece," (preposition de, d'o) . 

' He is wiser than (from) what appears/ 

French : 

" II vint de Paris," (preposition de) . 

' He Came from Paris/ 
" Plus eTune chose," (preposition de) . 

' More than (from) one thing/ 

The same two cases are betokened by the same case-tokens 
in Romaic ; 

" (axo) tv)V TaXXictv" (preposition anco). 

' from France/ 
" fi Tepfxaviu sJvai [Liyakvfripu. (olicq) ryv TaXXiccv, (prep. &%b). 
* Germany is larger than (from) France/ 

• (See Julius David's Modern Greek Grammar) . 

In Albanian the preposition yAct> means ( from/ 

(See Xy lander's Albanian Speech) . 

" i aovp.e novpixe (yyce,) ToiXiXctlcc fibre -nkg riy e de (yjca) 
Yovlulu" — (Mark iii. 7.) 

' A great multitude from Galilee followed him, and from 
Judea/ 

" %o pie ; fiopeXe VT6 yi/xpersp} re nieXfieT ears [xe i puij 
(yn#) oli. 

( He that is least in the kingdom of heaven is greater than 
(from) he/ 



y4 ETYMOLOGY. 

The increase of examples of this coincidence makes it less 
likely that it is an accidental one. 

It is true that in some languages, Latin and others, there 
are two modes of rating the quality of one thing from that of 
another. One of them is the mode which we are tracing, — that 
in which the thing with the quality of another rated from it, 
has the same case-tokens as a thing with an activity from it, — 
and the other mode is the conjunctive mode of two subjects, 
in w r hich the noun of the thing with the quality rated from 
it, follows a conjunction in the nominative case. 

1st mode. Argentum vilius [auro] . 

2d mode. Argentum vilius quam [aurum] . 

So in Welsh the form is, ' She is fairer not, or nor, her 
sister ;' i. e., she, not her sister, is fairer. 

The latter mode may be dismissed for a short time, while 
we are tracing the first through other languages. The first, 
as well as the latter, may be taken for the ends of induction 
in the discovery of the laws of the classification of cases. 

In Anglo-Saxon, through the fewness of its case-forms, the 
noun of a thing with a motion from it, is put in the dative 
case-form : 

" Da comon pa men of (<prym mseg^um) Germanie," — 
(dative case). 

' Then men came from three tribes of Germany/ 

t€ Ge synd beteran (manigum spear wum)," — (dative case). 
' Ye are better than (from) many sparrows/ 

Gothic : 

" Fram (attin) nisandiths vas," — (dative case). 
1 Was sent from the father/ 

" (Managain sparwam) batizans sigup gus," — (dative case). 
i Ye are better than (from) many sparrows/ 

In Icelandic, fra, from, governs the dative case, or a 
motion from a thing is marked by a noun in the dative case : 
"Fra (hverjum manni)," — (dative case). 
' From any man/ 

" Words which define or strengthen comparatives are put 
in the dative ; e. g., 

" (Hverjum manni) hserri." 

' Taller than (from) any man/ — Rask's Norse Grammar. 



ETYMOLOGY. 95 

In modern Irish the usual mode of rating the quality of a 
thing from that of another is the conjunctive form, — ( argen- 
tum vilius quam aurum;' but we find from O'Donovan's 
Irish Grammar, that in the old Irish and Gaelic the form 
'argentum vilius auro ' is found. Now the Irish preposition for 
1 from ' takes the dative or ablative case, and Mr. O' Donovan 
tells us that "when the noun following this comparison" 
(that of the form ( argentum vilius auro ; ) "is in the feminine 
gender, it is always in the dative or ablative;" and that 
''^lhten jeir, ( whiter than the swan/ is of the same con- 
struction as candidior cycno ;" or that the name of a thing 
with a motion from it, and that of a thing with the quality 
of another rated from it, have the same case -tokens. 

The same coincidence of case-tokens happens in the Scla- 
vonic tongues, Russian, Bohemian, and Wallachian. 

' \z (Russij)/ genitive; 'from Russia/ 

' (prikrasiaya ljlaj)/ genitive; ' fairer than (from) the lily/ 

In Bohemian, ' z ' out of, with a motion from, and ' od/ 
from, govern the genitive case ; 

' od lesa/ from the wood. 
' od vlice/ from the street. 

And Wenzel Pol, in his Bohmische Sprachkunst, says, " Den 
comparatives wird zwar gemeiniglich nezli nachgesetzet, als 
'Etnost gest wazenegssi nezli zlato;' "Tugend ist liber gold: 
doch kan auch solch nezli ausgelassen ; ' und der genitivus 
nachgesetzet werden, als ' Gest vcinegssi mne/ er ist gelehrter 
als ich." 

Commonly, indeed, ' nezli 3 is set after genitives, as 
' Etnost/ &c, ' Virtue is above gold ; ' but yet the nezli may 
be left out, and the genitive put on, as 'Gest/ &c, 'He is 
more learned of (from) me/ 

In Illyric od means from, and governs the genitive, case- 
form ; as, ' (od) brata/ from the brother ; but ' veci (od) 
brata/ means ' greater from (than) the brother/ 

In Bulgarian ot is from, and v 

'asidu (ot) doma — (ot) grad-ut/ (preposition ot,) means 
' 1 come from the house — from the town;' but 

'po-jak (ot) pesucivi-jiit kamuk/ means 'harder from 
(than) the sandstone/ (preposition ot). 



96 



ETYMOLOGY. 



In Wallachian [^e] de, means from ; as, ( de a kase/ from 
a house. 

1 The fox is more cunning than the dog/ is 
*jel BVAiie ecTe Mai BiKJieaH [^e-K/KT] ^el K/khc 
" €el vulpe este mai viklean [de keit] eel keine." 
r The fox is more cunning from how (from how much) 
the dog/ 

Here, although the sameness of case-token holds in 
de-keit/ ' the dog ' is in the nominative case, and therefore 
we have a key to the English form, ' the fox is more cunning 
than the dog/ — (See Blazewicz Grammatik der Dacoromanis- 
chen Sprache.) 

These coincidences which we are gathering of case-tokens, 
are already enough to make us mistrust that they happen 
from bare chance ; but we can find more of them, — 

In Turkish, the preposition 'den/ means 'from/ and is 

the token of the ablative case. 

' suiden/ from water ; 

but David's Grammaire Turke says, " Le comparatif est quel- 

quefois forme en mettant a Fablatif le nom ou le pronom 

qu'on compare : n 

' anden yegder' better (from) him. 
», 

In the language of the Lazen, sa is the ending of the 
fromness case-form, called by Rosen the motative; and the 
sentence, ' this stone is harder than that stone/ is 

' Ham qua (this stone), heem quasa [from that stone), 
da bgi one {it is harder.) 

So in Persian : 

" Ma(az) mushrik bur dmud." 
' The moon arose (from) the east/ (preposition az) . 
" Roshuntur (az) rookh-i-roz." 
' Fairer (from) than the face of day/ (preposition az) . 

In Hindoostanee : 

" Ghorai (sai) ooturkur." 

( Alighting (from) his horse/ (postposition sai) . 

" Nadan dost (sai) dana dobshmun bhula hai" 

' A wise foe is better from (than) an indiscreet friend/ 



ETYMOLOGY. 97 

Mr. Anderson, in his Rudiments of Tamul Grammar, says, 
" The ablative denotes locality, and serves also to denote 
motus a loco" 

By a figurative extension of the latter sense, the ablative 
serves to form the degrees of comparison ; as, ' this is greater 
than that/ i greater from that/ 

In Khoordish : 

" U b.stma ex wan." 

// 
{ Take from them/ {ex, from) . 

" Jek ex ta amintera." 

' One more faithful from (than) thee/ {ex, from.) 

Mandshoo language : 

In Mandshoo the case-ending for the ablative case, or for 
a thing with a motion from it, is e cj/ as [buit cj] from the 
house; and e lower than the high house/ is ' dergj [buit cj] 
fmsikhon/ i.e. lower from the high house. 

Schmidt, in his Grammar of the Mongolian language, says, 
"Der vergrossernde comparative wird theils durch vorset- 
zung des adverbums mehr gebildet, theils durch den ablative 
des zum vergleich gewahlten hauptworts und dessen post- 
position (atsa) von, aus, welche in comparations falle den 
sinn des Deutschen als annimmt ; " i. e., the increased com- 
parative is sometimes formed by the forsetting of the adverb 
more, and sometimes by the ablative of the noun chosen 
for the comparison and the postposition (atsa) from, out ; 
which, in the case of comparison, takes the meaning of the 
German als. 

In the Shemetic languages we find a like coincidence of 
case-tokens : 

Hebrew : 

iTlKn [ID] nby "INI, (preposition T», from) 

1 And a vapour arose from the earth/ 

Wy^ [D] pinE» (preposition D, same as fD with the f out 

' ,„ . ,, , , before a palate-letter.) 

' Sweeter (from) than honey. 



98 ETYMOLOGY. 

Arabic : 

" Kana Eensan arsila(min) Allah," (prepos. min, from) . 
' There was a man sent (from) God/ — (John i. 6.) 

"Ma dladzee eehld{min) alusal," (prepos. min, from). 

'What is sweeter (from) than honey/ — (Judges xiv. 18.) 

Syriac : 

In Syriac, also, the preposition from is used for than ; and 
' sharper than a two-edged sword/ is ' sharper from a two- 
edged sword/ 

Maltese : 

In Maltese the preposition 'from' is 'myn;' as, ("myn) 
dan jygi," ' it comes from this/ 

Then Vassalli, in his Grammatica delta Lingua Maltese, 
says, "I/addiettivo, che pud diventar comparativo nella sua 
qualita maggiore o minore, si construsce allora colle particelle 
' fost' o 'myn.'" 

" Aktar ahmar (myn) nar." 
' lledder from (than) fire/ 

In Coptic, isjen means from ; and isje is used for than ; 
'tahelpis (isjen) eiouemghi nte tamau/ 'My hope from my 
mother's breasts/ 

" Nanous gar eji ehoua (isji) elokh." 
' For (it is) better to marry (than) from to burn/ 

In Greenlandish the thing from which the quality of 
another is off-rated, is taken in the ablative or fromness case ; 
tugto, reindeer ; {tugtumit) , from the reindeer. 
" Nano (tugtumit) angivok." 
' The bear is great (from) the reindeer ; ' 
or, as Herr Kleinsmidt analyzes it, " Der bar is vom renn- 
thier (ausgegangen) gross;" d.h. 'grosser als ein rennthier/ 

Armenian : 

In Armenian the case-token for a thing with an activity 
from it, is that of the ablative case ; as, 

" E tsaee kooeeheedoots-g-ee banits," (ablative case) . 

' From evil thoughts and words/ 
" MyeSn markaraits," (ablative case) . 
' Greater from (than) the prophets/ 
(SeeFather Paschal Aucher's Grammar, Armenian and English.) 



ETYMOLOGY. 99 

The Finnic languages : 

The Finnic languages are, the Finnic itself, the Lapponie, 
the Madjar, or Magyar or Hungarian, the Cheremissian, the 
Esthonian, and the Syrjsena, the language of a tribe who 
dwell by the rivers Witshedga and Wim, and others. 

The case-endings of these languages, no less than ten, 
twelve, or fourteen, are most exact and complete as tokens of 
the logical relations of things. 

Hungarian or Magyar, and Finnic : 

In Hungarian the case-ending for the ablative is *$tol, 
and sometimes -val ; and " comparativi Hungarorum con- 
struuntur cum substantivis quibus suflixum praepositionale 
' val/ ' vel ' copulatum est." 

Yet I think the Magyars now often, if not mostly, take for 
comparison of qualities the form ' argentum vilius quam 
aurum/ In that form quam is represented by mint, of which 
I know not the formation ; and the noun of the thing from 
which the quality is rated is sometimes put in the nominative 
case-form, and at others in the associative. 

So in Esthonian, a noun of a thing with an activity from it 
takes the case-ending *st, and ' My wife is two years younger 
than 1/ is 

"Mo peiginees on kaks aastat norem (minnust)," (abla- 
tive of minna.) 

1 My wife is two years younger (from) me/ 

(See Affinitas Lingua Hungaricce cum Linguis Finnicce 
originis demonstrata, auctore Samuele Gyarmathi.) 

In Cheremissian : 

f Shimbel-gits/ means 'from the brother ;' and 

* Shimbel-gits kogo/ f greater from (than) the brother/ 

In Lapponie, again, the case-ending for a noun of a thing 
with an activity from it is 'est/ that of the ablative; and 
1 The crow is blacker than the swan/ is 
H Garanes le tiappetub (miukties/) " (ablative case) . 
f The crow is blacker from (than) the swan/ 

(Grammatica Lapponica, by Peter Fiellstrom) . 

So in the Syrjsena tongue, 

(See Lingua Syrjana, by M. A. Castren), 
The case-ending for the noun of a thing with a motion 



100 ETYMOLOGY. 

from it is mostly *ys, that of what Mr. Castren calls the 
relative case, as ju-ys, 'from the river ; J and 'Whatsoever is 
greater than this cometh of evil/ is 

' Myize vyyti (ta-ys)/ &c. 

' Whatsoever is greater (from) this/ &c. 

In Japanese, the suffix yori, yoriwa means ' from/ 
" Miyako yori koodaroo," ' I come from the court/ 
" Fito yori" ' from the man/ 

And M. Abel Remusat, in his Elemens de la Grammaire 
Japanoise, says, "On forme le comparatif en placant Padverbe 
nawo devant Padjectif au positif, et le particule yomi, ou 
yorimo, ou yoriwa, (from,) devant la chose comparee." 

In the Malay language, darri pad a is ' from/ or the token 
of fromness; and 'from God/ in the sentence "there was a 
man sent from God," is ' l darri pada Allah;" while 'two 
are better than one/ is " bayikla doowa darri pada sawatu." 

In Maori, " Wakaorang'a matou i te kino," is 

' Deliver us from the evil/ — (Matt. vi. 13.) 

And " Ehara oti te oranga, i te mea rahi i te kai/' 
' Is not the life more from (than) meat/ — 

(Matt. vi. 25.) 

In the Kafir language the thing from which a quality of 
another is rated, is taken in the same case as it is with a 
motion from it. Mr. Appleyard calls it the dative case ; but 
then he says elsewhere, that the dative forms include " the 
usual significations of to, in, into, on, at, from," &c. 

244. We see, then, that nation after nation of men have 
marked the case of a thing with an activity from it, and a 
thing with the quality of another rated from its own, with 
the same case-tokens, and therefore* have classed the two 
cases together, — a token that the minds of men have done 
much towards the classing of the logical relations of things 
by some laws, so that we may take heart in the searching 
after them. 

It, inay be answered, that there is not in English any such 

coincidence of case -tokens as those which we have been 

'gathering.,, -Since we say ' snow is whiter than linen/ an expres- 



ETYMOLOGY, 101 

sion in which e linen/ instead of having any token of the 
case of 'fromness/ is in the nominative case, as is f aurum' 

in the form. , . .,. , 

' ' argentum vilius quam aurum. 

Now we have a clue to this form in the Wallachian lan- 
guage in the foregiven expression : 

u gel vulpe este mai viklean (de keif) gel keine," 
' the fox is more cunning than the wolf; ' 
for de means ' from/ and keit ' how/ ' how much/ ' what ; ' 
and therefore de keit means 'from how much/ 'from how/ 
' from what ; ' 

And ' mai viklean dekeit gel keine/ is 

more cunning, ' from how/ or ' from how much/ or 
' from what ' the dog (is) ; 
so that the token of fromness is in ' dekeit/ though it is not 
in the noun ' keine/ 

Now we learn from the Anglo-Saxon (see 'j?on/in Bosworth/s 
Anglo-Saxon Dictionary), that (}>6n) our word 'than' is used 
chiefly in adverbial expressions for ' )?am/ which is the from- 
ness case-form of ' se/ and means ' from that/ so that ' Ge 
synt selran ()?onne) manega spearwan/ (Matt, x, 31.) is 'Ye 
are better from that (which) many sparrows (are) ; ' i. e., ye 
are better, rating the quality good from what sparrows are, 
so that the token of fromness, although it is not in ' spearwan/ 
is in 'Jjonne;' and Mr. Bosworth says, in his Anglo-Saxon 
Grammar, that "when the words 'J?onne/ f J?senne/ or ')?e/ 
are omitted after a comparative, the following word is put in 
the genitive or dative case," the fromness case-form j or, that 
when there is no pronoun upon which the law (if there be 
such a law) can hold, it holds on the noun. Hence we may 
deduce a resolution of the Latin form, ' argentum vilius quam 
aurum/ which seems to be elliptic for 

a argentum vilius (ab ea ad) quam aurum vile est." 

i silver is viler, rating from that quality to which gold is vile/ 

So in the Basque language we find 

" Ez jaatoc i-r-e zaldija (baiio) lodiric;" 

' No horse is fatter (than) yours/ 
In Zetlandish, 'more than ' is ( mour az/ and 
in the German, u listiger (als) der hund," 

'more cunning (than) the dog;' and 
in Greek, i ce^vorepov vj apery. 3 



102 ETYMOLOGY. 

The words 'bario/ and 'als/ and 'if/ may have a like 
origin, from a pronoun, as our word ' than/ and may etymo- 
logically have the case-token of fromness. But this wants 
further inquiry. 

245. It is true there is a form of comparison in which the 
noun of the thing from which the quality is rated is governed 
by a word of the meaning of our word ' over/ or f beyond/ 
and therefore may have no case-token of ' fromness ; ' but in 
that form the adjective is mostly in the positive, and not the 
comparative degree. It is thus : 

c Snow is white above, or over or beyond, linen/ 

Latin. " Scelere t ante alios immanior omnes." 

Mneid, lib. i. 347. 
1 Praeter cseteras altior/ 
In Luke xvi. 8. we have <ppovi[Aurepoi vvcp vlov; tov (pooTog. 

So in Bisaya, " 1 am older than Peter," is 
1 Tigurang aco can Pedro/ 
( I am old (in comparison) with Peter/ 

This form is sometimes found in Armenian and Chinese ; 
as in the Chinese, 

" Mu hiiin (hu) van, mu Irian (hu) wei / 
1 Nothing is clear over the hidden ; nothing open over the 

concealed/ 
1 Nothing is clearer than what is hidden ; nothing more 
open than what is concealed/ 

246. Having these tokens, — of what, indeed, we had reason 
to believe without them, — that mankind have classed by some 
laws of differences and likenesses the logical relations of 
things, our next business will be to learn into how many and 
what classes they have been disposed by mankind at large, or 
by different nations, or by those nations who have classed 
them with the most skill. 

247. Don Pablo Pedro de Astarloa, who wrote an Apologia 
de la Lengua Bascongada, ' Apology for the Basque Lan- 
guage/ — a language which is highly worthy of our admiration, 
if not of all his praise, — seems one of the first grammarians 
who ever thought of the classing of the natural cases, and 
says, upon the grounds of much keen reasoning, that ' ' there 



ETYMOLOGY. 103 

are four primary, and four secondary relations of noun to 
noun, (thing to thing)." That the four primary relations are 
those of agent, patient, recipient, and principal ; and the four 
secondary relations are those of material, final, instrumental, 
and efficient. 

Mr. de Astarloa seems to mean, by his eight relations, 
those of the following sentences : 

The boy (agent) struck the ball, (patient) . 
The man went into the house, (recipient). 
The man went from the house, (principal) ? 
The chain is made of gold, {material) . 
He laboured for wealth, (final) . 
He struck him with a stick, {instrumental) . 
He died from the blow, {efficient) . 

248. Mr. De Astarloa does not reckon among his relations 
of things (cases) those which we call the nominative and 
vocative cases, as they are not relations of the kinds of which 
he speaks. The nominative case is not the relation of one 
thing to another thing under speech, but it is the relation of 
a thing to the speech it is under : it is the subject of the 
speech in which it is taken. Now any one of the things 
under speech, whatever may be its relation to the others of 
them, may be taken as the subject of speech, and therefore 
may be taken into the nominative case with its other case, 
though not the case-form of its noun, left as it was. Thus, 
under the sentences, 

f The groom rides the horse/ and 
( The horse is ridden by the groom/ 

the relations of the groom (agent) and horse (patient) are the 
same; and yet in the former the groom is the subject of 
speech (in the nominative case), and in the latter the horse is 
the subject of speech (and in the nominative case) ; so that 
the nominative case is a king-case, taking the place of any 
natural case. And when a thing under speech is brought into 
it, its noun casts off the tokens of its thing-case, and the 
speech makes amends for them by the giving of case-tokens 
to other nouns of the speech, or by some other change of 
wording. Under the sentence, 

1 Caesar dnxit cohortem/ 

Caesar is agent ; but the noun Caesar has no case-token, while 



104 ETYMOLOGY. 

the noun ' cohortem ' has the case-token of the patient ; but 
under the sentence, 

' Cohors ducta est a Csesare/ 

1 cohors ' has cast off its token of patiency, and ' Csesare ' has 
taken that of the instrument. 

249. The vocative case is another relation of a thing to the 
speech. 

250. Mr. De Astarloa's eight relations, with the speech 
relations, the nominative and vocative cases, would make 
ten cases. 

251. In the classing of the logical relations of things, we 
may readily conceive that some nations may have classed two 
or more together upon too slight likenesses, and so may have 
too few classes of them ; or may have classed them asunder 
upon too slight differences, and so may have more classes of 
them than are needful. 

252. The Latin and Greek would show too few classes if 
we were to reckon them by the case-endings, since in Greek 
the relation of place and instrument are set in one class 
under the dative case-form, and in Latin the relations of 
instrument, place, and fromness are ranked under the ablative 
form of the noun ; but if we begin to look over the languages 
of the world to find those in which the relations of things 
may seem classed with the greatest skill under case-endings, 
we shall find worthy of our attention a cluster of tongues 
which we may call the Finnic, or the languages of the Finnic 
tribes. 

253. The Finnic tribes are, the Finns and Lapps, and the 
Magyars of Hungary ; 

The tribe by the river Iser, and that of Eastland, and of 
Livonia in the circle of Riga, and in Coorland ; 

The Tsheremisses or Cheremisses, on the left side of the 
Volga, the Mordwiners of Orenburg ; 

The Permians and the Syrjaners, both dwelling on the rivers 
Witshedga and Wim ; 

The Woguls of Siberia, and the Ostiaks of the lower Irtysh 
and lower Ob. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



105 



In the Grammatica Lapponica of Peter Fiellstrom there are 
reckoned nine case-forms, bnt in Gyarmathi's Affinitas Linguae 
Hungaricce cum Linguis Finnica originis, he gives the names 
of thirteen case -forms in the Lapponic and Hungarian. 



Lappcotc. 

Case 
endings. 



( Nominative 



Hungarian. 

Case 

endings. 

* 



( Vocative * . 

2 Genitive en . 

3 Accusative eb . 



Relations. 

vir, a man. 
o vir, o man. 
viri, of a man. 
virum, a man. 



4 Penetrative i 



ba, be . . in virum, into a man. j 



5 Nuncupative an . . . ra, re . . 

6 Dative : i ... nak . . 

7 Locative en . -ban, -ben 

8 Ablative est . . bol, bol . 

9 Mediative in . . . val, vel . 

10 Descriptive lai . . . . ent 

11 Negative atla . . . atlan . 

12 Factive en . . . va, ve. 



■■■{ 



\ usque ad virum, 
\ end of motion. 

viro, to a man. 

in viro, in a man. 

a viro, from a man. 

viro, with a man. 
secundum virum, 
case of parallel motion. 

(as shoeless). 



254. In the Lingua Syrjana we find sixteen case-endings 
or postpositions or case-forms. 



1 ( Nominative, mort. . . * 

2 ( Vocative * 

3 Genitive * 

4 Accusative as 

5 Illative a 



vir, a man. 
o vir, o man.- 
viri, of a man. 
virum, a man. 
in virum, into a man. 
1 . ( usque ad virum, up to 

J " I but not into a man. 

adversus virum, against 

or towards a man. 
pro viro, for a man. 
viro est amicus, (the 

dative of a noun). 

t ,. -p. . . •. ( viro locutus est, (the <la- 

10 Dative ly ] .. c ': N 

J ( tive of an action). 

11 Inessive yn in viro, in a man. 

5§ 



6 Terminative 

7 Allative lanj 

8 Consecutive la 

9 Adessive Ian 



106 



ETYMOLOGY. 



12 Elative ys e viro, out of a man. 

13 Ablative ] \ S ■ ] a viro, from a man. 

(. san J ) ... 

14 Instrumentive an, on cum viro, with a man. 

_ .. , C secundum virum, (case 

35 Prosecutive ad j of pftraM molion) . 

16 Caritive iig, agja manless. 

255. In the Finnic language we find fifteen case-forms, 
or postpositions. See Fitisk Spraklara, by Gustaf Erik Euren, 
Abo. 1849. 





Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


1 Nominative 




-t. 


8 Ablative . -Ita, lta. 


-ilta, -ilta. 


2 Infinitive . . 


-ta, tii. 


-it a, ita. 


9 Allative . . -He. 


-ilte. 


3 Genitive . . 


-n. 


-iten, -ten. 


10 Abessive . -tta, -ttii. 


-itta, ittii. 


4 Inessive . . 


-ssa, ssa. 


-issa, issa. 


11 Prolative . -tse. 


-itse. 


5 Elative . . . 


-sta, stii. 


-ista, istii. 


12 Translative, -ksi. 


-iksi. 


6 Illative . . . 


-h-n. 


-ih, -n. 


13 Essive . . -na, -na. 


-ina, -ina. 


7 Adessive . . 


-11a, 11a. 


-ilia, -ilia. 


14 Comitative, -ne. 


-ine. 



15 Instructive, -n. -in. 

It is an excellence of some of these Finnic languages, that 
as they have case-endings for most if not all of the greater 
classes of the logical relations of things, so they have but 
little if any need of prepositions or case-tokens of other kinds. 

256. Little good can be gained in, a language by the class- 
ing of different natural cases under the same case-form ; for 
the language may not therefore have fewer case-tokens, though 
it may have fewer case-endings, since it must still show, by 
prepositions, postpositions, or other case-tokens, the relations 
which it cannot mark off by its case-endings. 

The ' where ' case, or locative, (the Syrjsen inessive,) and 
the c wherefrom 3 case, or ablative, are classed in Latin under 
the same case-form, the ablative ; and since the word ' urbe ' 
itself will not mark them off one from the other, they are 
marked off by ' urbe ' with a preposition, as ' in urbe/ ' ab 
urbe/ and therefore ' in 9 and ( ab ; are as much case-tokens as 
' urbe ; * and if the noun had two case-endings for them, like 
the Finnic or Syrjsen tongue, there would be no need of the 
prepositions. 

It is therefore idle to object to a scheme of natural cases; 
that since it may, as it will, propose more cases than there 



ETYMOLOGY. 107 

are case-endkigs of nouns in Latin or Greek, or most other 
languages, so it perplexes the mind with manifold and need- 
less distinctions; for the logical relations of things .have 
already been classed by the nations of the earth, and distin- 
guished in their languages by case-forms, prepositions, post- 
positions, or case-tokens of some kinds; and therefore they 
must all be distinguished by the learners of such languages 
in the use of their case-tokens, whether they may be case- 
endings or others. 

257. We will now try to show what we hope may be found, 
for the sake of the syntax of languages at large, a useful 
classification of the cases, arranging them in their classes 
upon their natural differences and likenesses, and the classings 
which have been already made by many nations in their 
languages. 

258. Case 1. — Nominative Case. 

A thing under speech, as the subject of a predicate, is 
in a case which may be called the nominative case ; as, ' The 
man rides.' 

This case may be called the l main speech-case,' or ( king 



259. Case 2. — Vocative Case. 

A thing called by name, is in a case which may be called 
the vocative case ; as, ' O man ! hear me.' 

260. Case 3. — Possessive Case. 

A thing with another owned or possessed by it, is in a case 
called the possessive case ; as, ' John's field.' It may be called 
the ' what's' case. 

Note. — As a thing possessed belongs to its owner as a pos- 
session, so the owner belongs as a possessor to the thing 
possessed, and the possessor and possessed are in the pos- 
sessive case one to the other ; for where there is c vii i summa 
prudentia,' there is ' vir summse prudentise ; ' if there is 
' cadus vini,' there is ' vinum cadi.' 

See Latin rule, "Laus vituperium, vel qualitas rei," &c; and 
Latin rule, " Sum genitivum postulat quoties significat pos- 
sessionem," &c. 



108 ETYMOLOGY. 

The whole of a thing is possessor of all its parts, so a thing 
under speech with a part of itself is in the possessive case ; 
as, ' one (finger) of the fingers/ 'primus {rex) regum Roma- 
norum ft/it Romulus ; 3 ' paululum pecuniae.' Thence the Latin 
rules, "Adjectivum in neutro genere," &c. and "Nomina par- 
titiva numeralia/' Szc. 

See Greek Grammar : construction of active verbs. 'KpoTaos 
i&Ti twv % Kovtji cov. ' 

To this case belongs the Latin rule, t€ Instar et ergo geni- 
tivum post se habent;" as, 'instar montis,' e donari virtutis 
ergo.' For instar is a word of the form (5. 1.), composed of 
in and stare, a verbal noun, meaning standing or stead or 
size; and 'instar montis' is in statu(B) montis(A), in the size 
(B) of a mountain (A) . 

Ergo is the Greek noun epyev, a work ; and ergo virtutis is 
pro ergo(B) virtutis (A), for the work or sake of his virtue. 

To this case also belong the Latin rules, " Quaedam adverbia 
loci, temporis et quantitatis, genitivum admittunt/' : Eb im- 
pudent 'ue,' is ' eo gradu(B) impudentice(A) .' 'Quo terrarum 
abiit,' is ' quo loco (B) terrarum{A) abiit' ' Pridie ejus diet,' 
is ' prior e die(B) ejus diei(A)/ &c. 

261. Case 4. — Genitive or Elative Case. 

A thing with another, or its predicate beginning or begotten 
of it, is in a case which may be called the genitive or 
elative case. It may be called the ' whereof case; as, f the 
fear of death/ ' the love of money/ ' the works of man/ ' the 
cup is full of water/ 

The natural possessive and genitive cases are clearly different, 
though in most languages they are both classed under one 
case -form; for a thing may be the begetter of a thing which 
it may not possess, or may be possessor of a thing which it 
may not have begotten. ' John's field/ means the field of 
which John is possessor but not begetter; while ' the fear of 
death/ or ' the love of money/ does not mean the fear or love 
which death or money possesses, for neither death nor money 
can possess fear or love; but the fear of death or the love ot 
money is the fear or love which death or money begets in the 
mind of man; and under the sentence, 'the cup is full of 
water/ the water is the begetter of the predicate ' full/ 

Since a thing with another, or its predicate beginning or 



ETYMOLOGY. 109 

begotten by it is in the genitive case, it follows that a thing 
may have two genitive relations, — one genitive relation to 
another thing itself, and another to its predicate; as (1st) 
'the prick of a needle/ where the needle is the begetter of 
the thing f prick ; ' (2d) the cup is c full of water/ where the 
water is not the begetter of the thing f cup/ but of its pre- 
dicate 'full:' and it is idle to object that to make so keen a 
discrimination as that between the relation of the thing A to 
the thing B, and the relation of the thing A to the predicate 
of the thing B, is to make case needlessly perplexing, for 
some nations, such as the Finnic ones, have shown such dis- 
criminations in the case-forms of their languages, and we 
could not understand any language in which such discrimina- 
tions might be made without the making of them in our 
minds. 

Euren, in his Finnish Grammar, distinguishes the genitive 
from the possessive by the calling of the latter the genitive 
possessive. 

The Greek in 2 Corinth, v. 14, is ambiguous : " n yap 
uyxnYi T °u %p*0TOu a\)vi%ai V\\lolc;? If tov %p/0"TOU is pos- 
sessive, it means, as Bloomfield observes, the love of Christ 
for us; but if it is genitive, it means our love for him. 

Examples of A, genitive of B : 
'Crescit amor(B) nummi(A), quantum ipsa pecunia crescit/ 
See Latin rule, " Quum duo substantiva diversae/' &c. 

Examples of A, genitive of the predicate (p) of B : 

' Weary (p) of crying (A) ;' e res(B) plena (p) timoris(A) ;' 
' est natura(B) hominum novitatis(A) avida(\)) -/ ' timi- 
dus(p) deorum(A).' 
See the Latin rule "Adjectiva quae desiderium, notitiam," &c. 

To this case also belongs the Latin rule, " Verba accusandi, 
damnandi, monendi," &c. 

As, ' Alterum accusat{p) probri(A).' 

' Sceleris(A) condemnat(p) yenerum suum' 

To this case belong also the Latin rules for the taking of 
the genitive case-form by some verbs in -or, as misereor, remi- 
niscor, obliviscor, recordor, potior. The ending -or of these 
verbs shows that they are not active : they are middle-voice 
verbs. 

misereor, is to become miser, sad or afflicted. 

reminiscor, is to become or keep mindful again. 



110 ETYMOLOGY. 

obliviscor, is to become forgetful. 
recordor, is to become feeling again. 

potior (from potis), is to become pot is, powerful, or possessor. 
So, u Oro miserere laborum ;" 

'Be sad(p) of our toils (A)/ 
" Data fidei(A) reminiscitur(p) ;" 

f He is mindful (p) of the plighted faith (A).' 
u Vitiorum(A) suorum oblitus est(\>) ;" 

' He has become forgetful (p) of his own vices (A). 
" Recordor (p) Jiujus meriti{A) •/' 

'I become feeling again (p) of this kindness (A). 
" Armorum(A) potiti sunt(p) •/' 

'They became ( potes/ masters of the weapons.' 
" Sum m (tut imperii {A) potiti sunt{\)) ;" 

'They became ' potes' over the chief power/ 
Satago (from satis ago) takes the genitive case-form for 
the same reason that satis does so; ' satis ' stands for the 
thing(B), and 

" Satis (B) pecuniae" is ' enough (B) of money (A) ;' 
and " Satagit istarum rerum/' is ' he has enough of those 
things/ 
To this case belongs the Latin rule, " Participia, cum fiunt 
nomina, genitivum exigunt;" alieni(A) appetens^) sui(A) 
profusus (p) . 

The government of genitive case-forms in Latin by the 
impersonal verbs interest and refert, belongs rather to the 
case of (A genitive of B) than of (A genitive of p) . 

Interest, formed of sum and inter, means ' it is among •/ and 
'Interest* magistrates tueri bonos,' is 
' Est. inter officia(B) magistrates (A) tueri,' &c. 
Interest means, also, ' there is (much or something) between/ 
' there is a difference ; ' as, ' interest hoc inter hominem et 
beJluam:—Cic. Off. i. 11. 

So in Anglo-Saxon, "Micel is betwux 'Ssere ungesewenlican 
mihte $aes halgan husles, and," &c. — Old Sermon of the 
Paschal Lamb. 

' There is much (a great difference) between/ &c. 
Refert (from res and fero) means, ' it bears wealth, or a good/ 
" Tanti refert honesta agere" is 
' Tanti pretii(A) rem{B), or res(B)fert, J &c. 
' It brings a good(B) of such worth (A) to behave honestly/ 



ETYMOLOGY. Ill 

The German seems to have a nominative case-form for a 
genitive in the formula : 

f A bottle of wine;' c A crowd of folk;' 
' Eine flasche wein? c Eine menge leute.' 

That this, however, is only a solecism, allowed for shortness, 
seems clear from the appearance of the genitive case-form 
with an adjective; as, 

" Eine mass des besten bieres ; " 
1 A pint of the best beer/ 

A thing (A) with another (B) made of it, is mostly in the 
elative or genitive case, as 'the crown was made of gold/ 
since the stuff (A) of which (B) is made is, without much 
straining of meaning, the begetter of B. 

In Latin the genitive and matter of a thing are named by 
the same case-form, and in English they are marked by the 
same preposition, 

262. Case 5. — Originative Case. 

A thing with the motion or predicate of another from it, 
is in a case which may be called the originative or ' where- 
from' case: as, f he went from London;' 'he was pale from 
fear.' 

This is a twofold case, — that of the 'wherefrom' case of the 
thing, as ' he went from London ; ' and the ' wherefrom ' case 
of the predicate, ' he was pale from fear.' 

These cases are the true ablative of the Latin, and both in 
Latin and Greek they are classed under the same case-form, — 
the Latin ablative and Greek genitive; but in the Finnic and 
Syrjsen tongues they are marked by different case-endings. 
The c wherefrom' case of the thing is the Syrjsen first ablative 
or elative and Finnic elative ; and the ' wherefrom ' case of 
the predicate is the Syrjsen second ablative and Finnic abla- 
lative, which is the Lazen motative, and is the same as 
Mr. De Asterloa's relation of efficient cause. 

Examples of the ' wherefrom ' case to the thing. 

Some cases of Latin ablatives after the prepositions ab, 
absque, de, e, ex. 

The rule, " Verbis significantibus motum a loco, fere additur 
nomen loci in ablativo," &c. 



112 ETYMOLOGY. 

The ' wherefrom ' case of (he predicate. 

The case of the rule " Comparativa, cum exponantur per 
qncim, ablativum admittunt; ut, vilius argentum est auro." 

The rule "Natus, prognatus, satus, cretus, creatus, ortus, 
editus, ablativum exigunt." 

A thing may be the begetter or wherefrom of another's 
predicate by its absence as well as by its presence, as under 
the sentence ' the cup is empty of water/ ' there is need of 
rain ; ' where the water, by its absence, is the begetter of the 
predicate ' is empty ; ' and rain, by its absence, is the cause of 
the predicate ' there is need/ Thence ' opus/ in Latin, 
requires an ablative or a genitive ; as, 

1 Auctoritate tua (or tuce) nobis opus est.' 

To the ' wherefrom ' case of the predicate belongs the Latin 
rule for the taking of an ablative case by adjectives that 
belong to fatness and want : the rule, "Adjectiva et substan- 
tia regunt ablativum significantem causam et formam," &c, 
and the rule, " Verba abundandi, implendi, onerandi, et his 
diversa, ablativo junguntur." 

263. To this case may belong also, if it does not sometimes 
appertain to the hereafter given associative,* the rule, "Quibus 
libet verbis additur ablativus absolute sumptus." 

Under the sentence, ' the wind being against us, we made 
but little way/ the wind is the wherefrom of the predicate 
' we made but little way/ and therefore is in the ' wherefrom ' 
case ; and in both Latin and Greek may be named with the 
case-endings of the wherefrom case-forms, the ablative and 
genitive. 

Some grammarians say that the noun of the absolute case 
is in the nominative case in English, and it may be so if case 
is only the form of the noun ; so that under the sentence 
'the man whipped the dog/ the dog would be in the nomi- 
native case. But a thing with a predicate reckoned from it, as 
is a thing in the absolute case, is in the f wherefrom ' case, 
even although, by a solecism, it may be named by a noun 
with the case-tokens of another ca&e. 

In the French ' Qui veut de ces pommes ? Moi, j'en veux/ 
the word moi may be taken as in the dative case ; but still the 

* Plautus writes, " Agite cum diis beneyolentibus," where it is clear that he 
takes the gods in the associative case. 



ETYMOLOGY. 113 

person named by moi cannot be in any natural case but the 
nominative. 

It is rather markworthy that the very form which is given by 
Diomedes (lib. ii.), as a pattern of a solecism, has now settled in 
Komaic as that of a sentence with an absolute noun. He says, 

" HoXoiKKTfibg de lati> \6yog aKaTaWrjXwg (rvvTerayfievog, wg to, syib 
TripiTraruiV 6 rolxog trrtatv," 

and now they aay in modern Greek, 

" xaQov/Jievog avrog tig to Tpairk^i ijXav oi 0i\oi tov." 

' He sitting at table, his friends came.' 

In Icelandic the noun absolute takes the case-form of the 
' wberefrom * case : 

" At )?vi gjorvu," f at tbat done/ ' hoc facto/ 

In Finnic, the absolute case is the nominative case-form. 

To this ' wherefrom ' case of the predicate belong the Latin 
rules for ' verba passiva/ and the rule, ' Tanto, quanto, hoc, eo, 
et quo, cum quibusdam aliis quae mensuram excessus signi- 
ficant, item setate et natu comparativis, &c. junguntur." 

A verb (a) may be the ' wherefrom ' case of a predicate (b) . 
French, ( Je suis aise (b) de vous voir (a) . 
Spanish, ' Me alegro (b) de ver (a) u. m. 

264. Case 6, — Accusative or Illative Case. 

A thing with the coming or action of another to it, is in 
a case which may be called the accusative or illative, or 
'whereunto' case; as, ' John went to London -/ l Cain slew 
Abel/ 

This is a twofold case, the accusative to the thing, as 
under the sentence ( John went to London/ where London 
is with the motion of John to it ; and the accusative to the 
action, as ( Cain slew Abel/ where Abel is with the action 
f slew' to him. 

In many languages, as in Latin and Greek, these two cases 
are classed together under the same case-form ; but in Syrjsen 
they are marked by different case-endings, that of the accu- 
sative to the action ' being ' -as, and that of the accusative 
to the thing, called the illative and terminative, being 
-a and -edzj. 

In Lapponic, a thing with a motion into it has a case-form 
called the penetrative. 



114 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Accusative to the thing. 

To this case belongs the Latin rule, " Nomina appellativa 
adduntur fere cum prsepositione/' &c. 

r< Verbis significantibus motum ad locum, fere additur nomen 
loci in accusativo sine prsepositione ; as, 

Concessi Cantabrigiam. Ite domum" 

Accusative to the action. 

To this case belong the Latin rule, "Verba transitiva," &c, 
and some sentences of the rule, " Verba rogandi," &c. 

It is not true that l verba vestiendi/ verbs of clothing, 
mostly govern an accusative case. Even the verb vestio 
governs the ablative, and not the accusative, as in ' tabulis 
parietes vestire ;' and amicio (amjicio), to cast round, takes 
an ablative or accusative case-form. 

It is true 'i#duo' governs the accusative, for it is formed 
of in or iv (on) , £wo (to betake or put) ; and ' induit se cal- 
ceos,' is ' induit se in calceos,' (he put himself, or went into 
his shoes) , as we say of a child, f he is gone into long-clothes/ 
where the clothes are the accusative to the thing ' he/ 

To this case belongs also the Latin rule, " Verba infinitivi 

modi frequenter pro nominativo accusativum ante se statuunt," 

which holds on a thing which is the accusative to an action 

that may sometimes be understood only, and not named ; as, 

' Te rediisse incolumem gaudeo' is 

1 Te (scire or videre) rediisse incolumem gaudeo. J 

In Japanese, the accusative to the thing and the accusative 
to the predicate are marked by different case-endings : 
Fito-ye, ' to the man/ ' ad virum/ 
Fitowa, ' the man/ ' virum/ 

265. Case 7. — Allative or Objective Case. 

A thing with the aiming of another's motion or predicate 
towards it, is in a case which may be called the allative or 
objective case, or the ' wheretowards ' case. 

This is a twofold case; that of the objective to the thing, 
and the objective to the predicate. 

In Latin and Greek, and many other languages, they are 
classed with the ( whereto ' cases under the accusative case- 
form, but marked asunder by prepositions or other free 
case-tokens. 



ETYMOLOGY. 115 

This objective case must not be mistaken for Murray's 
objective, which takes in many natural cases, nor is it the 
same as the accusative case; for the accusative is that of a 
thing with the coming or action of another to it, and the 
objective case is that of a thing with the aiming of another's 
predicate or motion towards it. Under ' he threw a stone at 
John/ the stone is the accusative to the action, and John is 
the objective to the predicate ' threw a stone/ 

Examples of the objective to the motion. 

To this case belong many prepositions, as in 'vir ivit 
adversus, or contra, or post, hostes. Vir ivit erga, juxta, 
prope, ultra, trans, flumen. } 

It has been said, in a former article, that the notions of the 
activities of the mind, or of things which are not perceived 
by the senses, are mostly formed from notions of the acti- 
vities of the body or other things which are perceived by the 
senses; as, ' anger inflamed his mind;' 'remorse stung his 
soul/ And in the same way the notion of the reaching of a 
thing through lengths of space, or the lasting of its activity 
through lengths of time, is taken from the motion of it to 
those lengths of space and time ; as, ' he lived ninety years/ 
i. e. on to ninety years, year after year ; ' the wood reached 
five miles ;' i.e. on to five miles, mile after mile ; and there- 
fore spaces and times, with the Teachings of things or acti- 
vities to them, are in the objective case. 

Thence the Latin rules, "De tempore et loco;" "Quae 
autem durationem temporis," &c. ; and " Spatium loci in 
accusativo ponitur," &c. 

This case is called in Syrjsen grammar the ablative, and its 
case-ending is -I'dnj. 

Objective to the predicate, but not to the motion. 

'The girl went to the spring for water;' where 'the spring' 
is the accusative to the girl's motion, and 'water' the ob- 
jective to the predicate ' went to the spring/ 

' The soldier fought for glory ; ' where ' glory ' is the 
objective to the predicate 'fought/ 

To this case belongs the Latin rule, " Natus, commodus, 
incommodus, utilis," &c. ; as, 

' Natus ad gloriam.' ' Utilis ad earn rem.' 



116 ETYMOLOGY. 

Under the sentence, ' Tu modb posce deos veniam, 9 given as 
an example of two accusatives after verbs of asking, deos is 
accusative and veniam objective to the activity posce; and 
e poscere deos veniam 3 is 'to ask the gods for pardon/ 

To this case belong the sentences under the rule " In pro 
erga, contra, ad et supra accusativum exigit." 
' Accipit in Teucros animum? 
c In commoda publica peccem.' 
' In regnum quceritur hceres 9 

In the Syrjsen grammar this case is called the consecutive, 
and in the Finnic the allative, and is the one which Mr. De 
Asterloa calls the ' final relation/ 

266. Case 8. — Locative Case. 

A thing named as the place of another or its predicate, is 
in a case which may be called the locative or ' where ' case. 

This case is classed in Latin under the ablative case-form, 
and in Greek under the dative ; but in Russian and Bohemian 
it is mostly marked by a form called the prepositional case- 
form. In Basque it is marked by the case-ending -an; it is 
the commorative case of Armenian, in which its ending is e ; 
and it is the inessive of the Finnic and Syrjsen tongues, in 
which its case-ending is -yn, and ssa, ssa, issa, issd ; while in 
Lapponic it is -esn or -en, and in Hungarian -ban, -ben. In 
Chinese its mark is a preposition ' iui/ as in 

" 'Iu fang shang ;" * he sat in the hall/ 

To this case belong the Latin rule that in, for in only serves 
to the ablative case, and the sentence ' super viridi fronde. 3 

Since the ' where ' case is classed under the Latin ablative 
case-form, the name of the place of an action should be, as it 
is in all forms but the singular ones of the first and second 
declension, in the ablative case. 

There is a rule, " Omne verbum admittit genitivum oppidi 
nominis, in quo fit actio, mod6 primse vel secundse declina- 
tionis, et singularis numeri sit ;" ut, 

( Quid Romae faciam.' 

( Hi genitivi, humi, domi, militia, belli, propriorum sequuntur 
formam;' ut, 

' TJna semper militice et domi fuimus.' 

But there are reasons for believing that the case-forms 
called in this rule genitive, are old ablative ones. Perizonius 



ETYMOLOGY. 117 

believed that the ablative case-form was once the same as tbe 
dative, and in the plural number it is still so. In the first 
declension the dative is found in ai, which became a, as the 
Greek ai becomes a in Latin. 

The a of the ablative is long, and as it is so in breach of 
the rules for nouns in a, it is most likely so as a contraction 
of ai. 

In the second declension the dative and ablative case-forms 
are still the same. In the third, the dative formerly ended in 
e or i, as in Plautus's epitaph : c Postquam est morte datus, 
comoedia luget/ (Aulus Gell., Attic Nights, i. 24) ; and the 
ablative is found in i in Plaut. (Men. v. 2, 14), c de parti med,' 
and many nouns take either e or i. Aulus Gellius shows that, 
in the fourth declension, the dative once ended in u as well 
as ui; and in Plaut. (Merc. i. 1, 4), we find die for diei, the 
dative of dies. 

See observations on the cases in ( A Practical Grammar of 
the Latin Tongue: London, 1742/ 

A time named as the place of an action is in the ' where ' 
case ; thence the rule ' Quae significant partem temporis, in 
ablativo frequentius ponuntu*'. 

Are not the words inertia; and mora old ablative forms in 
*■ Paulum sepulta distat inertia 1 
Celata virtus, 
Er-ipe te mora ' ? 
See Latin rule, l Qusedam accipiendi, distandi, et auferendi/ &c. 

267. Case 9. — Dative or Adessive. 

A thing with the relation but not the motion of another's 
predicate to it, is in a case which may be called the dative 
or adessive, or ' what-to ' case ; as ' mihi est pater/ or ' I spoke 
to the man/ 

This is also a twofold case : that of the dative to the thing, 
which in the Syrjsen grammar is called the adessive case, as 
that of mihi under c mihi est pater ;' and that of the dative to 
the predicate, which the Syrjaen grammar names the dative, 
as that of ivoman under ' the man spoke to the woman.' 

Dative to the thing. 

To this case belongs the Latin rule, ' Sum cum compositis, 
regit dativum \' as, 

( Rex plus est reipublica ornamentum ;' 



118 ETYMOLOGY. 

and the rule, f Est, pro habeo, regit dativum/ 

' Est mihi namque domi pater ;' 
and the rule, l Verba comparandi regunt dativum/ ut 
1 Sic parvis componere magna solebam.' 
' Hue referuntur nomina ex con prsepositione composita ; 
ut, contubernalis, commilito, ccmscrvus, cognatus,' &c. 

The dative to the predicate. 

To this belongs the Latin rule, ' Secundus aliquando dati- 
vum exigit;' ut, 'Hand ulli veterum virtute secundus. } 

The rule 'Adjectiva, quibus commodum, incommodum, 
similitudo, dissimilitudo, voluptas/ &c. 

The rule ' Verbalia in bills accepta passive, et participialia 
in dus, dativum postulant ;' ut, 

' Nulli penetrabilis astro 
Lucus iners,' 

The rule * Omnia verba regunt dativum ejus rei, cui aliquid 
acquiritur, aut adimitur/ 

The rules ' Verba dandi, et reddendi/ and ( verba promit- 
tendi, ac solvcndi, regunt dativum/ and the rules for verbs of 
telling and trusting, with a dative case. 

The rule f Exosus et perosus, passive significantia, cum 
dativo leguutur;' ut 'Exosus Deo.' 

268. Case 10. — Associative or Instrumentive Case. 

A thing (B) associated with another (A) in an action, is in 
a case which may be called the ' associative or instrumentive/ 
or ' wherewith ' case ; as, ' the Persians write with a reed ; ' 
' I walked with John/ 

The Lazic and the Sclavonic tongues, the Wendish, Illyric, 
and others, have an associative case-form. 

This case is classed in Latin under the 'wherefrom' case- 
endiug, as ( Hi jaculis, illi certant defendere saxis ;' but in 
many languages, the Russian, Bohemian, Hindoostanee,Tamul, 
Basque, Lapponic, Hungarian, and Syrjeen languages, the 
associative of the instrument is marked by a case-ending of 
its own ; and in the new tongues derived from the Latin it 
is mostly classed under the genitive case-token, — 
French, ' II me blessa cTune epee.' 

In Greenlandish this case-form is called the ' modalis/ 

The associative case is twofold, — the free associative to the 
thing, but not of need to its action, and the associative of 



ETYMOLOGY. 119 

need to the action of a thing, or the instrument, which is 
called in the Lapponic grammar the mediative. 

When ' I wrote with a pen/ the pen was necessarily asso- 
ciated with me as an instrument of my action of writing ; but 
when ' 1 walked with John/ John was freely but not neces- 
sarily associated with me in my action of walking. 

The Mongolian and Finnic languages have a case-form for 
each of the associative cases, the free associative and the 
instrumentive. In Lapponic the instrumentive is called the 
mediative. 

To this case belongs the Latin rule, ' Fung or, fruor, utor, 
vescor, dignor ablativo junguntur/ 

The ending -or of these verbs shows that they are not 
active, but passive or middle-voice verbs. Vescor means 
' I feed myself/ and vescor came is ' 1 feed myself with meat/ 
where meat is the wherewith of the action ' I feed myself/ 

Fungor officio is finem agor officio, ' I take myself through 
with my duty/ 

Fruor re med, { I enjoy myself with my wealth/ 

Utor cultello, ' I help or accommodate myself with a knife ; ' 
as in French, Je me sers d'un couteau (I use a knife) ; and in 
German, Ich bediene mich dieser schonen gelegenheit, c I serve 
myself with this good opportunity/ 



269. Case 11. — Abessive Case. 

A thing without another with which it is named in a 
sentence, is in a case which may be called the abessive or 
f wherewithout ' case ; as, f I walked without John/ ' I wrote 
without a pen/ 

This case is the reverse of the associative, and is marked by 
its own case-form in Finnic, Lapponic, Cheremissian, Estho- 
nian, Syrjaen, &c. Its case-form is called in sundry Grammars 
the abessive, caritive, and negative. 



270. Case 12. — Assecutive Case. 

A thing with the motion of another parallel to it, is in a 
case which may be called the assecutive or ' whereafter ' case. 

We have already given the case of a thing with the motion 
of another to it, and that of a thing with the motion of 
another from it \ but there may be a thing with the motion 



120 ETYMOLOGY. 

of another neither to it nor from it, but parallel with it ; as, 
1 the horse walks along by the canal/ 

Bvj £' atti<wv 7r«£# 6n/#. 

In Latin and Greek this case is classed under the accusative 
case-form ; but in some of the Finnic tongues it has case- 
forms of its own, such as that called the descriptive and 
prosecutive. 

In Euren's Finnic Grammar this case is called the prolative, 
and in Greenlandish the vialis. 

There are some other relations of space, such as that of 
above, below, behind, before, near, round; and a thing with 
another in one of those relations to it, is in a case which may 
be called the space case. It will be shown in the grammar of 
the prepositions that they are mostly resolved into some of 
those already given. In Armenian, however, some of these 
relations are classed under a case-form which is called the 
circumlative; and in Russian some of them are marked by 
prepositions, with the case-form that is mostly that of the 
instrumentive or associative. 

In Armenian the circumlative case-ending is either that of 
the accusative or instrumentive. A circumlative noun may 
be likely to take that of the accusative with a verb of motion, 
and when it is the same as that of the instrumentive, it does 
not seem so likely that the circumlative case has taken the 
case -tokens of the instrumentive, as that those of the circum- 
lative were taken by the instrumentive; for the Armenian 
circumlative case, as well as the instrumentive, seems to be one 
of association, and one notion of an instrument is that of a 
thing in association with another, the agent, and thence we 
have the same preposition with for association and instru- 
mentality; as, 

John was walking (in association) with his sister. 

John wrote his name with a pencil ; i. e, 

John (in association) with his pencil wrote his name. 

271. The Latin gerund in -urn is really a verbal noun of the 
declension of regnum. 



N. . 


. scribendum 


. . . writing. 


G. . 


. scribendi . 


. . of writing. 


D. . . 


. scribendo . 


. . to writing. 


Ac. 


. scribendum 


. . writing. 


V. . . 


. scribendum 


. . o writing. 


Ab.. 


. scribendo . 


. . . from, in, with writing. 



ETYMOLOGY. 121 

This is shown by tne verbal noun of the Finnic, which is 
declined with the case-endings of the nonn. 

This language has both active and passive verbal nouns, the 
active (3-{-nota) answering to our (3+iw^^and (3-{-nottata) 
answering to our (a being '6-\-ed) . 



272. Definite and Indefinite Things. 

Many are the contrivances of sundry nations for the 
betokening the wideness and narrowness of predicates, and 
their looseness as predicates of undefined things of their 
name, or their fixedness as predicates of defined things of 
a name. 

In English, as well as in Greek, Italian, Spanish, Portu- 
guese, French, German, Swedish, Danish, and other languages, 
the noun is marked definite or indefinite, or the limitation of 
the predicate is shown by little words called articles, and 
other contrivances; as, 

• Give me a book/ indefinite ; 'Give me the book/ definite. 

'Give me some apples/ indefinite; 'Give me the apples/ 
definite. 

In Swedish the definite and indefinite singular numbers are 
marked by the foresetting or aftersetting of the same article 
to the noun ; as, ett barn, a child ; barnett, the child. 

In French an indefinite quantity or number is marked by 
a possessive formula; as, ' Donnez moi du pain ; y ( J'acheterai 
des oranges. 3 

In Finnic there is both a definite and indefinite form of 
the noun. The indefinite form, called by Euren the indefinite 
case, is (\-\-ta), &c, and betokens an indefinite subject, as 
'stones were thrown at the windows;' or the object of a 
negative predicate, as 'we did not plant potatoes;' or a par- 
titive object, as ' give me some bread.' 

In Cree there are determinate and indeterminate forms of 
the verb ; as, noote~n-eyaywuk, ' they (determinate) fight ; ' 
noote-n-eyanewoo, ' they (some people) are fighting.' 

273. SHIFTING OF CASE.— TWOFOLD CASES. 

It may so happen that, notwithstanding the clear off- 
marking of one case from another, the relation of a thing (A) 
to another (B) may be such, that (A) may fairly be taken as in 

G 



1 22 ETYMOLOGY. 

either of two logical relations to (B) ; and therefore that one 
case may be taken in language for another. 

Such ambiguous cases may be called twofold cases. 

One of such twofold cases is that of the going of a 
thing (A) through a thing (B) ; as under the sentence, ' the 
man went through the gate/ Here the man first went to the 
gate, which was in the accusative case (art. 264), and then 
he went off from it ; and thence it was in the l wherefrom ' 
case (art. 262). 

Thence, in different languages we may find the preposition 
through with tokens of the most different cases ; in some 
tongues, as in Greek, with the tokens of the ' wherefrom ' case ; 
and in other tongues, as in Latin and the Teutonic tongues, 
as we see by the case-endings of the Gothic and German, 
with the tokens of the ' whereunto ' case. 

Twelve classes of cases are given in this Grammar, and the 
number of combinations that can be made out of n things 
taken two and two together, arc wX't 1 ; or if n be 12, 12X ■?-, 
or 66 ; or if every one of the cases might be commuted for any 
one of the others, there would be 66 commutations of two- 
fold cases. The commutation of some few of the pairs of 
cases, however, may be unknown in any language. The 
names of most of them are given hereafter, as commutations 
unknown to the author may be known to the reader. 

274. Commutation of Nominative, 
Possessive and Dative, &c. 
WJiafs and What-to. 

Any one of the things under speech may be taken as the 
subject of it, and therefore may be made the nominative case. 

The woodman's boy struck my dog with a rod of hazel in 
the field near (to) my house. The cases of the things under 
this sentence are, woodman, genitive; boy, nominative; dog, 
accusative to the predicate ; rod, instrumentive ; hazel, geni- 
tive ; field, locative ; house, dative to the field. 

Now, by conversion of the sentence, either of the things 
may be made the nominative case ; as, 

1. Woodman. The woodman is the father of the boy who 

struck, &c. 

2. Dog. My dog was struck by the woodman's boy with 

a rod, &c. 



ETYMOLOGY, 123 

3. Rod. It was a rod of hazel with which the woodman's 

boy struck my dog, &c, 

4. Hazel. Hazel was the wood of the rod with which the 

woodman's boy struck my dog in the field, &c. 

5. Field. It was the field near my house where the wood- 

man's boy struck my dog, &c. 

6. House. My house is by the field where the woodman's 

boy struck, &c. 
Again : 

f The girl went from her house down the road to the spring 
for water.' 

The girl is in the nominative case. 
„ house „ wherefrom of the thing. 
„ road „ whereafter of the parallel motion. 
„ spring „ accusative to the thing. 
„ water „ objective to the predicate. 
By conversion, house, road, spring, water, may become 
nominative : 

1. House. It was the house from whence the girl went 

down the road, &c. 

2. Road, The road was taken by the girl as she went from 

her house, &c. 

3. Spring. The spring was the place whither the girl went 

from her house down the road for water. 

4. Water. Water was the object for which the girl went 

from her house down the road. 

l 

2. 

275. Nominative and Vocative. 

A thing called by name or the vocative case, may be the 
subject of the sentence, and some languages have only one 
case-form for both the nominative and vocative cases. 

3. 

276. Nominative and Possessive. 

A nominative case with a cardinal number may be con- 
verted into a possessive case; ' A has B,' may be converted 
into <of AisB.' 

Our formula ' one king,' ' two kings,' is in Turkish ' one 
of kings,' 'two of kings.' So in Illyric, 'six of horses.' 

The conversion of ' A has B ' into ' of A is B,' gives the 
Turkish formula ' Benum var kopek,' ' of me there is a dog,' 
* I have a dog.' 



124 ETYMOLOGY. 

4. 

277. Nominative and Genitive. 

We may say, ' the water {nom.) fills the cup/ or, by change 
of subject, 'the cup is full of water/ (gen.) ; 'Man ton (nom.) 
makes good guns/ ' Manton's (yen.) guns are good/ 

5. 

278. Nominative and Wherefrom Case. 

By a change of subject the nominative may become a 
1 wherefrom ' case ; as, ' John (nom.) has sent me a letter ; ' 
' 1 have received a letter from John/ [wherefrom) . Thence 
the Latin formula ' statur ab illis/ for ' they stand ; * and 
' pugnatum est/ for ' pugnaverunt/ So in English, ' people 
say or believe there will be a war/ or ' it is said or believed 
(by people) there will be a war/ 

In Hindoostanee we find mostly the passive formula 
1 Raj at nae bola,' 'it was said by the king/ for 'the king 
said ; ' ' the gun (nom.) sent the ball/ ' the ball flew from the 
gun/ (wherefrom). 

}_ 
6. 

279. Nominative and Accusative, or 

Whereunto Case. 

The accusative case to an action becomes a nominative by 
a change of subject, with the action in the passive voice : 
' The dog caught the hare/ (accusative) ; 
' The hare (nom.) was caught by the dog/ 

In German, our formula ' what book is that ? ' is ' what 
for a book is that?' 

In Magyar, our formula 'I was baptized John/ (nom.) is ' I 
was baptized unto or into John/ (accusative or penetrative) . 

In Greenlandish, for 'he (nom.) is my neighbour/ they 
say ' I have him (ace.) for a neighbour/ 

In Finnic and Lapponic there is a case-form called the 
nuncupative or factive, and essive, for nouns of accidental 
qualities which may be taken by a subject or object of a 
sentence. This case may be ranked under the accusative or 
objective case, or, in some of its forms, under the dative, as it 
is sometimes in Latin. 

' 1 am a singer/ (with singer in the factive case) , would 
mean ' I am become or come to a singer/ which differs 



ETYMOLOGY. 125 

from 'I am a singer/ with singer in the nominative case, 
which wonld mean only ' I am a singer by profession/ 

• He became a priest/ (nom.) ; in Lapponic, ' into a priest/ 
(/active) . 

I Deus mihi pater/ (nom.) ; in Lapponic, ' in patrem/ (/active) 
or f for a father/ 

' He was accused as a thief/ (rcow.) ; Lapponic, ' for a thief/ 

7. 

280. Nominative and Objective. 

The formula f He (nom.) is greater than 1/ is, in Green- 
landish, ' I have him for a greater (object.) than 1/ 

' Money (nom.) makes John work : ' ' John works for 
money/ (object.) 

l 
8. 

281. Nominative and Locative, or Where Case. 

' My purse (nom.) contains ten sovereigns/ (accus.) 

I I have ten sovereigns (ace.) in my purse/ ('where' case). 
In Finnic, for ' John is now a man' (nom.), (i. e. } grown to 

be a man,) they say f John is now in man/ (loc.) (i. e., in his 
manhood) . 

9. 

282. Nominative and Dative, or Whereto Case. 

If we convert the sentence, ' that man has a wife/ ' is vir 
habet conjugem/ so that wife may be the nominative case, it 
must take some such form as f there is a wife (belonging) to 
that man/ ' Ei viro est conjux/ or f there is a wife of or to 
that man ; ' and so where no verb of possessing or owning is 
used, the possessive thing, in the nominative case, will become 
a dative or possessive to the thing possessed. Thence the 
Latin rule, "Est, pro habeo, regit dativum;" ut, 
' Est mihi namque domi pater.' 

This form, ' to A there is B/ is admissible in English as well 
as in Latin j as, ' Pump some water/ — Ans. ' The pump (nom.) 
has no handle/ (ace.) ; or, f There is no handle (nom.) to the 
pump/ (dat.) 

The form ' to A there is B/ instead of ' A has B/ is the 
form of the sentence of possession in many languages, as 



] 26 ETYMOLOGY. 

Irish, Tamul, Mandshoo, and in Lapponic, Syrjsean, and 
Magyar. 

So c I (A) have (a letter to write) ' (B), becomes by conver- 
sion, ( To me (to A) there is (a letter to write) ' (B) . 

This is the Latin formula, ' mihi epistola scribenda est/ 

See the Latin rule, i Participiis passive vocis/ &c. 

Our formula i what man is that ? ' becomes in Lapponic 
'what to men is that?' i.e., ' what, in relation to men, is 
that?' where the Lapponic has a dative case-form instead of 
a nominative. 

So in Bisaya, ' canino inin balayV f to whom (whose) is 
that house ? ' 

1^ 
ia 

283. Nominative and Associative, or 

Wherewith Case. 

( John (nom.) was walking with Henry/ (assoc.) 

There also e Henry {nom.) was walking with John/ (assoc.) 

' John (nom.) struck my leg with a stone/ (assoc.) 

1 A stone (nom.) thrown by John, struck my leg/ (accus.) 

In the Tonga language, for want of a passive verb, the 

nominative and accusative formula, c a stone struck him/ for 

' he was struck by a stone/ is always used. 

1 I {nom.) have twenty boarders j ' ' there are twenty 

boarders with me/ (assoc.) 

l 
11. 

284. Nominative and Abessive. 

' John (nom.) was walking without Henry/ (abess.) 
' Henry (nom.) was not walking with John/ (assoc.) 
This case-change happens with a conversion of the abessive 
into a nominative case, and an affirmative into a negative 
predicate. 

J^ 
12. 

285. Nominative and Parallel, or 

Whereafter Case. 

c The ruler (nom.) directs the pencil ; ; ' the pencil follows 
the ruler/ (assec.) 



ETYMOLOGY. 1.27 



L 

4. 

286. Possessive and Genitive. 

What's and Whereof. 

The begetter of a thing is so often the owner of it, that in 
most languages the possessive and genitive cases are often 
classed under the same tokens, In English, however, they 
are far from undistinguished by case-tokens, for the ending s, 
though it is so often that of the possessive, is rarely that of 
the genitive, which is marked by of. 

' The love of money/ could not be named by 'money's 
love/ which would mean the love possessed by money; and 
' full water's/ for ' full of water/ or ' ill fever's/ for ' ill of 
fever/ would never be received as good English. 

So in Latin. In 'languet desiderio tui/ tui is genitive, 
not possessive ; but ' desiderio tuo ' means ' from thy desire.' 
' Imago mea/ is ' my picture;' ' imago mei/ is 'the picture 
or likeness of me.' 

j$ 

5. 

287. Possessive and Wherefrom Case. 

A of B ... A from B. 

The thing owned by another may be from it, and so the 
' whereof ' case may be taken for the ' wherefrom ' case : 
' A man of Trinity College ' becomes, in Dorsetshire, ' a man 
from Trinity College.' 

So in Latin, ' Deus e vobis alter est.' 

And so in Irish and Hindoostance : Irish, ' the fairest 
woman from women.' Hindoos., ' one from the kings/ 

So in Swedish, ' skonheten af en vers;' 'the beauty 
from (of) a verse' 

In German, 'der konig von Frankreich;' 'the king from 
(of) France.' 

And the Latin de (from) has become the token of the pos- 
sessive case in Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and French ; 
and our of, the genitive case-token, once meant from. 



128 ETYMOLOGY. 

3 
6. 

288. Possessive and Accusative. 

What's and Whereunto. 

By taking an active participle for the noun of the agent, an 
accusative may take place of the possessive. 

' The writer of the letter/ {poss.) ; ' the one writing 
(Greek, 6 ypatpuv,) the letter.' 

This is the formula of the Mongolian. 

7. 

289. Possessive and Objective. 

What's and Wherefore. 
'That money is for John/ 'That is John's money.' 
' Christ is a Saviour for men / ' Christ is the Saviour of men.' 

8. 

290. Possessive and Locative. 

What's and Where. 

The place of a thing is the possessor of it, and the ' where ' 
case may be the possessive. 

1 The furniture in the hall, is the furniture of the hall/ 

3 

~9.~ 

291. Possessive and Dative. 

What's and What-to. 

A possessed by B, is A with a motionless relation to B, 
and a possessive case may be converted into a dative. 

' There is an end of that, or to that/ 

1 He is brother of or to that lady.' 

Thence the Latin rules for the conversion of the genitive 
into the dative, and the reverse. 

" Quern metuis, par hvjus erat." — Lucan. 

" Domini similis es." — Ter. 

" Vobis immunibus hujus 
Esse mali dabitur." — Ovid. 

" Caprificus omnibus immunus est, 
Fratri (for fratris) cedes fient pervice." — Ter. Adelph. 5, 7. 



ETYMOLOGY. 129 

The possessor, however, is more frequently in the possessive 
case when its thing is definite, and in the dative when its 
thing is indefinite ; as, f he is a steward to Lord A / ' he is 
the steward of Lord A. } 

1 That is a letter written to John/ (dat.) ' That is John's 
(poss.) .letter/ 

So inLapponic, adjectives of likeness govern the possessive. 

3 

10. 

292. Possessive and Associative. 

Whafs and Wherewith. 

A thing (A) possessed by (B) may be with (B), and the 
possessive and associative cases may take place of each other. 

' John is a fellow-workman of Henry/ (possess.) ; f John 
is a fellow-workman with Henry/ (assoc.) 

' John's (poss.) servants may be called ; ' ' the servants 
with John/ (assoc.) 

_3_ 
11- 

293. Possessive and Abessive. 

12. 

294. Possessive and Parallel, or Assecutive 

or Whereafter Case. 

' The rover by the stream/ (paral.) is f the rover of the 
stream/ (poss.) 

_4 
5." 

295. Genitive and Originative. 

Whereof and Wherefrom. 

A thing (A) or its predicate (B), beginning from or be- 
gotten of another (B), may be taken as a thing or predi- 
cate from (B) ; and the ' whereof ' and ' wherefrom ' cases may 
be taken one for the other. 

Hence the Latin rules for the conversion of the genitive 
after a verb into the ablative. 

Accusas furti, an stupri ? Utroque, or de utroque. ' Im- 
plentur veteris B ace hi.' 

6§ 



130 ETYMOLOGY. 

In the Latin rule, " Qiuedam accipiendi, distandi, et aufe- 
rendi, verba aliquando dativo junguntur/ J if the words inertia 
and morce are not old ablative forms, they are of this two- 
fold case. 

The matter of a thing (A) is mostly matter taken from the 
matter (B) of the same name, and is therefore named some- 
times by the genitive or ' whereof case, and sometimes by 
the ' wherefrom ' case. 

' The smith made a horse-shoe of his iron/ {gen.) or 
'from his iron, 5 (wherefrom) . 

So in Lapponic, ' maste (ivherefrom) le dacketum ; ' 'from 
what is it made ? ' ' muacrest (wherefrom) from wood/ 

And in theCree language/ pahk'eggin ootche/ 'from leather/ 

German, c Es ist von eisen / e it is from (of) iron/ 

So in Mongolian. 

In Greek and French the genitive and f wherefrom ' cases 
have the same case-tokens; the genitive case-form of the 
Greek, and the preposition de of the French. 

So the formula ' sick of fever/ is in Albanian ' sick from 
fever / and in the Saxon, ' full Halgum Gaste/ e full of the 
Holy Ghost/ Gaste has the c wherefrom ' case-form, as it 
would have in Turkish. 

So they say in Irish, 'Ian jzeipge/ 'full of anger/ or 'Ian 
b' peipg/ ' full from anger/ 

Hindoostanee, ' Khetoii rukhwolern (se) sumo/ ' fields 
empty from (of) workfolk/ 

Persian, ' Pur (oz) lolhoe/ ' full from (of) tulips/ 

4_ 

6. 

296. Genitive and Accusative. 

Whereof and Whereunto. 

In Lapponic, the formula c guilty of murder/ (gen.) some- 
times becomes ' guilty to murder/ 'up to (usque ad) murder/ 

' John loves painting/ may be made ' John is fond of 
painting/ 

7. 

297. Genitive and Objective. 

" Whereof and Wheretoivards 

An action aimed towards an object may be begotten from 
it, and an objective case may be taken for a genitive one. 



ETYMOLOGY. 131 

A.-Sax., 'K his sunu hine bitt hlafes/ (gen.) 
English, ' If his son ask him for bread/ (object.) 
Lapponic, ' Piergo hanhies / ' desirous of food/ (gen.) 

' Pierguoi hanhies / ' desirous for food/ (object.) 
So in Lapponic, ' a man greedy of gain/ [gen.) is some- 
times called ' a man greedy for or after gain/ (object.) 

87 
298. Genitive and Locative. 

Whereof and Where. 

A thing with another begotten of it may be the place of it ; 
and the ' whereof } and ' where 3 cases may take each the 
other's place. 

In Lapponic, ths formula ' innocent of crimes/ (gen.) 
becomes ' innocent in crimes/ 

In Mongolian, ' the grass of the field/ ' the kernel of the 
nut/ are ' the grass in the field/ and ' the kernel in the nut/ 

Eng., ' He is careful of his clothes ;' Russ., ' he is careful 
on his clothes/ 

Eng., ( He spoke of justice;' Russ., 'he spoke on justice/ 

' 111 of fever ; 3 ( ill m fever/ 

So, f a figure shapen of matter/ is e shapen in it / and { an 
image of gold/ is f an image m gold/ 

' A figure q/* marble ' is sometimes called ' a figure in marble/ 



9. 

299. Genitive and Dative. 

Whereof and What-to. 

A predicate (B) begotteu of a thing (A), is sometimes 
taken as a predicate (B) with a motionless relation to (A) ; 
thence our formula 'fond of wine/ is in Lapponic 'fond 
to wine/ 

And our formula 'think of me/ is in German and French 
1 think to me/ 

Germ., ' sie denkt an mich/ Fr., ' cllc pense a moi/ 
' John is fond of pleasure/ or ' given to pleasure/ 



] 82 ETYMOLOGY. 



4_ 
10. 



300. Genitive and Associative. 

Whereof and Wherewith. 

An instrument (A) of its effect (B), is the tiling of which 
its effect (B) is begotten, and the genitive case is sometimes 
taken for the associative of the instrument. 

' He was killed by a blow of a club ;' or, ' he was killed by 
a blow with a club/ 

Hindoostanee, ' Of (ivitti) this takee I will buy a hen/ 

A man f tired of mowing/ (whereof) is ' tired with mow- 
ing/ (assoc.) 

A cup ' made of gold/ is sometimes said to be made with 
gold/ 

The formula 'the cup is full of water/ (gen.) would be, in 
Mongolian and Lapponic, ' the cup is full with water/ (assoc.) 

4 
11. 

301. Genitive and Abessive. 

Whereof and Wherewithout. 

' A man deprived of a thing/ (gen.) is ( a man ivithout the 
thing/ (abess.) 

_4 
12." 

302. Genitive and Parallel or Assecutive. 

_5 

6. 

303. Originative and Accusative. 

Wherefrom and Wlieretowards. 

When a share (A) of a whole thing (B) is accusative to an 
action, whereby it is sundered from the whole, then the whole 
(B) is sometimes named as the ( wherefrom ' case, instead of 
the share (A) in the accusative case. 

' He drinks wine ' (A) , ' he drinks of or from wine ' (B) , 
which is the Lapponic formula. 

A thing with an action towards it may be the origin of 
the action. 

In Lapponic, the formula ( I fear the danger/ becomes ' I 
fear from the danger/ 



ETYMOLOGY. 133 

5 

304. Originative and Objective. 

W herefrom and Whereafter. 

The end of an action may be taken as the origin of it : 
f He did it for malice/ [object.) ; ' he did it from malice/ 
(w herefrom) . 

Objective and Originative. 
Wheretowards and Wherefrom. 

A thing (B) with the aiming of a predicate (A) towards it, 
may be with the predicate (A) reckoned from it ; and so the 
objective (wheretowards ) case may be taken for the originative 
(wherefrom) case, as under the sentence, ' he painted for 
fame;' where the predicate of painting was aimed at fame as 
its end, and began from it as a begetting cause of it. 

Thence we may say in Latin, ( defendit se contra insidias/ 
or c defendit se ab insidiis / ' he did it for love/ ' he did it 
from love/ 

The money for which a thing is sold, or the thing for which 
another is given, is in this twofold case ; as, ' Thomas sold his 
horse for twenty pounds/ or ' Thomas gave his bay horse for 
a black mare/ where the predicate of selling or giving was 
aimed at the c twenty pounds/ or the ' black mare/ as its end, 
and began from it as a begetting cause. 

The Teutonic nations mostly, though not always, take this 
case as an accusative ; as, ' he worked for wages / ' he sold his 
horse for fifty pounds/ 

The Eng. and A.-Sax. for, Ger.fiir, Du. voor, Goth, faur, 
Swed. for, which is a preposition of this case, will sometimes 
take the case-ending of the ' wherefrom ' case. 

From this case we have the Latin rule, " Quibusdam verbis 
subjicitur nomen pretii in ablativo casu." 

The money for which a thing is bought, though not that 
for which it is sold, may be in the instrumentive or ' where- 
with ' case. We may say in English, ' I bought a hat with a 
sovereign/ but not ( I sold a hat with a sovereign/ 

An action as well as a thing may be the end or begetting 
cause of an action; as 'she went into the garden to gather 
a rose/ where the action f to gather a rose/ was the end or 



134 ETYMOLOGY. 

the ' wherefrom ' of the action f went into the garden/ and in 
old English would have been marked with the preposition for, 
our token of the case ; as, ' what went ye out (for) to see ? ' 
— (St. Luke, vii. 16.) The preposition is often left out of this 
formula in modern English; as, 'what went ye out ( ) 
to see?' 

Thence the Latin rule for the formula of this twofold case 
with the accusative gerund, as in " Ad accusandos homines 
duci praemio, proximum latrocinio est ;" and the rule " Supi- 
num in um active significat, et sequitur verbum," &c. 
" Milites sunt missi speculatum arcem." 

The end and the begetting cause of the predicate cannot 
always be taken one for the other. Ends sought by actions of 
the will are usually taken as objective in case; and begetting 
causes of unchosen actions are mostly in ' wherefrom ' cases. 
We say ' he died for his fatherland/ and ' he died from fever/ 

These two cases are marked in Spanish and French by two 
prepositions : in Spanish, para and por ; and in French, pour 

" Trabajo para el bien publico ;" 
' He laboured for the public weal/ 
" Habla por embidia ;" 
' He speaks from envy/ 
French, " Mourir pour la patrie," 
" Mourir de faim/' 



8. 

305. Originative and Locative. 

Where and Wherefrom. 

The ' where ' of a subject may sometimes be taken as the 
' wherefrom ' of the predicate ; as, 

' He spoke in the balcony/ (loc.) 

1 He spoke from the balcony/ (wherefrom). 

( He did it in anger/ (loc.) 

1 He did it from anger/ (wherefrom) . 

This is the Magyar formula. 

In Illyric, the formula ' he spoke of the war/ {^herefrom 
or gen.) becomes ( he spoke on the war/ (loc.) 

English, < Think of me/ (gen.) Fr., 'Pensezamoi/ 



ETYMOLOGY. 135 

9. 

306. Originative and Dative. 

What-to and Wherefrom. 

A thing with the predicate of another reckoned from it, the 
1 wherefrom ' case, may be taken as a thing with the relation 
of another's predicate to it ; and in many languages the 
1 wherefrom ' and ' what-to 3 cases are classed under the same 
case-form. 

In Lapponic, the formula ( I was bitten by or from a dog/ 
is ' 1 was bitten to a dog/ i. e., in relation to a dog. 

_5_ 
10. 

307. Originative and Associative. 

Wherefrom and Wherewith. 
An action of an agent with an instrument, is sometimes 
reckoned from the instrument instead of the agent, as the 
agent may be overlooked. 

' The Jews received warnings from God by the prophets/ (assoc) 
1 The Jews received warnings from the prophets/ (orig.) 
Icelandic, " Steig Dor Tp&fram oSrum fseti/' 

' Then Thor stepped forward from (with) one foot/ 

In French de, in Cree oot'che, and in Chinese oo, is taken as 
a token of both the instrumentive and the wherefrom case. 
French, ' Je viens de Paris/ 

f II me frappa rf'un baton/ 

Cree, ' Meegewap-ick ootche / ' from the tent/ (wherefrom) . 
1 Sapoo-n-egun ootche / ' from (with) a needle/ 

So in Latin and some of the Teutonic languages, the 
1 wherefrom ' and ' where with ' cases are classed under the 
same case-form. 

' The child cried from pain/ {where/.) or ' with pain/ (assoc.) 

The associative formula is the Illyric. 

The quantity by which one thing differs from another, is that 
with which it differs (assoc.) and that /rom which it differs, 
(ivhercfrom,) ( He is taller than his brother by a foot/ — 
French, ' (Pun pied/ (wherefrom.) 

Illyric, ' He is taller than his brother with a foot/ (assoc.) 



136 ETYMOLOGY. 

Our formula f he died from a blow/ (wherefrom), if he died 
some time after it, would be in Finnic, ' he died of or from a 
blow / but if he died at once, it would be ' he died to, or at, 
or against a blow/ (illative) . 

5 
11. 

308. Originative and Abessive. 

Wherefrom and Wlierewithout. 

5 

12. 

309. Originative and Assecutive. 

Wherefrom and Whereafter. 

6 

7. 

310. Accusative and Objective. 
Whereunto and What - towards. 

The case of a thing (B) with the coming of another or its 
predicate (A) to it, the f whereunto ' case, or the accusative 
case, is often classed with that of a thing (B) with the aim of 
another's motion or predicate (A) towards it, — the objective 
case. 

In Latin the two cases have the same case-ending : 
' Ccesar in Galliam profectus est.' 
1 Amor in patriam. 3 
' John works for gain/ (obj.) ; or, ( John seeks gain/ (ace.) 
e A ticket for London/ (obj.) ; or, f a ticket to London/ (ace.) 
So we may say ' Henry stoned John/ (ace.) ; or, ( Henry 
threw a stone at John/ (obj.) 

8. 

311. Accusative and Locative. 

Whereunto and Where. 

A thing (A) with the action of another (B) to it, may be 
the place of the other (B) ; and the place-case and accusative 
case may displace each other. 

' John holds a farm/ (ace.) ; or, ' John is in a farm/ (loc.) 



ETYMOLOGY. 137 

' The water fills the cup/ (ace) ; or, ' the water is in the 
cup/ (loc.) 

' John carries on the flour trade/ (ace.) ; or, ' John is in 
the wine trade/ (loc.) 

In English and French the same preposition stands with an 
accusative and locative case. 

English, ' He is at Dorchester/ (loc.) ; ' He threw a stone 
at me/ (ace.) 

French, ' 11 est a Londres/ (loc.) ; ' 1/ enfant courut a sa 
mere/' (ace.) 

6 
9. 

312. Accusative and Dative. 

Whereunto and What-to. 

Since the direction of a thing is mostly known with a 
motion of it, so the bare direction of a thing or of its pre- 
dicate is often taken as a motion of it or its predicate ; and 
the dative case, that of a thing (B) with a motionless relation 
of another (A) to it, is often taken for the case of a thing 
(B) with the motion of another (A) to it, the l whereunto ' 
or accusative case. 

i The vane points to the east, or towards the east/ 

In Hindoostanee the same postposition (ko), in Persian the 
same ending (ra), and in French and English the same pre- 
position (a French and to English), is applied to the accu- 
sative and dative cases. 

' I went to John/ (ace.) ; ' I spoke to John/ (dat.) 

Greek, ' vpojuvvu tw 6fw/ (dat.) ; v.ct) tov Qeov/ (ace.) 

Modern Greek, " Ksyu eh rov QiXov /xou/ (ace.) 

In Lapponic and Syrjsen the dative is sometimes taken for 
an accusative to a motion. 

We say in English : ' I sealed the deed/ (ace.) ; or, ' I put 
my seal to the deed/ (dat.) 

' I ended the business/ (ace.) ; or, ' I put an end to the 
business/ (dat.) 

_6_ 

10. 

313. Accusative and Dative. 

Our formula 'They call my father John/ (ace), is in 
Magyar ' They call to my father John/ (dat.) 



138 ETYMOLOGY. 

Notions of unbodily actions are formed from those of bodily 
ones, and are often named by the same words; but a tiling 
with an unbodily action to it under the name of a bodily 
motion, is not therefore always taken as the accusative to the 
motion, but is often taken as the dative to the motionless 
action. 

Thence many of the datives for accusatives under the Latin 
rule, ' Dativum ferme regunt verba composita cum his adver- 
biis, bene, satis, male ; et cum his prsepositionibus, prce, ad, 
con/ &c. 

' Intempestive qui occupato (dat.) adlusent 3 

' Ccepit ad id (ace.) alludere. 3 — Ter. Eun., iii. 1, 35. 

1 Reginam (ace.) adloquitur 3 — Virg. JEn., lib. i. 59 4. 

1 Conducit hoc tuce laudi, 3 (dat.) 

' Iniquissimam pacem justissimo bello (dat.) antefero.' 

' Postpono fames (dat.) pecuniam 3 

c Ea quoniam nemini (dat.) obtrudi potest.' 

' Itur ad me? 

1 Impendet omnibus (dat.) periculum 3 

' Tanta te (ace.) impendent mala 3 — Ter. Phor., i. 4, 2. 

' Fessum (ace.) quies plurimum juvat.' 

c Si ad eum (ace.) comparatur, nihil est 3 

' Imperat, aut servit, collecta pecunia cuique, (dat.) 

i Temperat ipse sibi, 3 (dat.) 

' Sol temperat omnia (accus.) luce 3 

' Semper obtemperat pius filius patri, 3 (dat.) 

' Ignavis precibus (dat.) fortuna repugnat 3 

' Utrique (dat.) mortem est minitatus. 3 — Cic, 

' Adolescenti (dat.) nihil est quod succenseam 3 — Ter. 

' Me vis dicere quod ad te (ace.) attinet. 3 

' Special ad omnes (ace.) bene vivere. 3 

11. 
314. Accusative and Associative. 

Whereunto and Wherewith. 
( Donare aliquem civitate, 3 (instrument.) — Cicero. 
c Armeniam minorem (ace.) Deiotaro donavit. 3 — Eutropius, 
lib. vi. 14. 

The accusative to a verb of owning may be converted into 
an associative, since the owner of a thing is associated with it. 
' He is a man with five children ' [assoc), for f he has five 



ETYMOLOGY. 139 

children/ So Horace, (Satira, vi. 32,) ' Quali sit facie, 3 
(assoc), for ' what a face he may have/ 

So our formula 'He spits blood/ and f The child weeps 
great tears/ would be in Mongolian, ' He spits with blood/ 
(assoc), and ' The child weeps with great tears/ 

In Greenlandish, owing to the want of an article, the definite 
and indefinite noun has two case-forms. 

" Merdlertut asavai," ' He loves the children/ (definite.) 

u Merdlertunik asangnigpok," ' He loves with children/ 
(indefinite.) 

6 
12. 

315. Accusative and Abessive. 

Whereunto and Wherewithout. 

J3 

13~ 

316. Accusative and Assecutive. 

Whereunto and Whereafter, 

Amotion of a thing (A) by a thing (B), is mostly classed by 
nations who have no case-ending to mark it, or no ' where- 
after ' case-form, as a motion to rather than from (B). 
Latin, ' Secundum littus/ (ace.) 
Greek, ' /3vj £' a%i«v nupx 6rv#/ (ace.) 

7_ 
~8. 

317. Objective axd Locative. 

Wlteretowards and Where. 

The object of an action may be the place of it, ' Alfred 
did much good for England ' (object.), and ' in England ' (loc.) ; 
and the objective case may be the place-case. 

_7_ 
9. 

318. Objective and Dative. 

In Tonga, for ' Give it to me ' (dat.), they say ' Give it for 
mine/ 

There is in some languages an emphatic objective or dative 
in a formula, such as ( There's a leap for you ! ' 



] 40 ETYMOLOGY. 

Latin, " Suo sibi gladio hunc jugulo/' 1 1 will cut this man's 
throat for him with his own sword/ 

German, " Das waren ihnen wahre helden ;" ' Those were 
true heroes for you/ 

7_ 
"10. 

319. Objective and Associative. 

Wheretoivards and Wherewith, 

' He bought a bat for the shilling/ (object.) ; or 'he bought 
a bat with the shilling/ (assoc.) 

_7_ 
11. 

320, Objective and Assecutive. 

Wheretowards and Whereafter. 

A thing with a motion of another parallel with it, is some- 
times taken as a thing with the aiming of another's motion 
or action towards it ; and the objective and assecutive cases 
have been classed under one case-form in Latin, Greek, 
German, and some other languages. 

Latin, ' In regnum (object.) quaeritur hseres/ 
' Secundum flumen (assec.) ivit/ 



8 

9. 

321. Locative and Dative. 

Where and Whereto. 

When a thing (A) is in the place of another (B) or its 
predicate (P), it may be taken as a thing (A) with the relation 
of the predicate to it; and the French, Greeks, Germans, 
and others have classed the locative f where ' case and the 
dative or ' what-to ' case under the same case-tokenings. 

Greek, ' KvaireheT t§ woAe*/ (dat.) 

f iv ry iioKeiy (dat.) 
French, ' Je l'ai donne a mon ami/ 

1 II est a Paris/ 



ETYMOLOGY. 141 

8 
10. 

322. Locative and Associative. 

Where and Wherewith. 

The place of a predicate may be the instrument of it; as, 
' The child hid her face in her apron/ (loc.) ; or, 
' The child hid her face with her apron/ (instru.) 
' He squeezed his finger in a vice/ (loc.) ) or, 
' He squeezed his finger with a vice/ (instru.) 
i They played at quoits, or with quoits/ 
' He played a tune on his violin/ (loc.) ; or, 
f He played a tune wi/A his violin/ (assoc.) 

In Russian, our formula ' He is pale in his face/ is ' He is 
pale wz7A his face/ 

' in summer we make hay/ (/oc.) 

In Illyric, ' with the summer (assoc.) we make hay/ 

A thing ' soaked m water/ is ( soaked with water/ 

8 
11. 

323. Locative and Abessive. 

Where and Wherewithout, 

8 
12. 

324. Locative and Parallel or Assecutive. 

Where and Whereafter. 

The place of an action may be with a motion parallel to it, 
and the locative and assecutive cases may take place one of 
the other. 

1 They walked in the lane/ (loc.) ; or, 

' They walked down the lane/ (assec.) 

9 

10. 

325. Dative and Associative. 

What-to and Wherewith. 

A thing associated with another under a predicate, may be 
taken as a thing with the relation of that predicate to it, and 
the associative and dative cases may take place of each other. 

c I compared gold to or with silver; ' 

' I spoke to or iviih John/ 



142 ETYMOLOGY. 

The Hindoostanee idiom is, ' I said with John/ 
Thence the Latin comparo takes a dative case-form, or an 
ablative (assoc.) case-form with cum. 

9 

11. 

326. Dative and Abessive. 
Whereto and Wherewithout. 

9 

12. 

327. Dative and Assecutive. 

Whereto and Whereafter. 
' I kept to the stream/ (dat.) ; or, 
1 1 went down or by the stream/ (assec.) 

10 

n. 

328. Associative and Abessive. 

Wherewith and Wherewithout. 

10 

12. 

329. Associative and Assecutive. 

Wherewith and Whereafter. 

' He went with the stream/ (assoc.) or 
f He went down the stream/ (assec.) 
So in Illyric, f Idem mojim p\it-em/ (assoc.) ; 
' I go with my way/ 

11 

12. 

330. Abessive and Assecutive. 
Wherewithout and Whereafter 

331. Subject of Speech. 

Under the formula ' He thought or spoke or wrote of war/ 
war is in the genitive case, (art. 261) ; and it may be taken in 
the originative by art. 262, and in the objective by art. 265. 



ETYMOLOGY. m 143 

Therefore the formula 

1. ( He spoke of war/ {gen.), may be converted into 

2. ' Locutus est de bello/ (w herefrom) , 

3. ( He spoke on or upon war/ {where), 

4. e He spoke a£ow£ war/ {assec.) 

Formulae 1 and 3 are English; formula 1 is Finnish and 
Bretonne. 

Formulse 2 and 3 are Latin. 

Formula 2 isMagyar and German, f Er spricht boses von ihm/ 

Formula 3 is Russian and Bohemian, (Sclavonic). 

Formulae 2 and 3 are also Armenian, for although the 
Armenian has a case-form called the narrative, its case-ending 
is either the same as that of the ablative, or else that of the 
accusative. 

332. Measures of Size. 

Spaces of size, such as miles, yards, feet, inches, or others, 
with a predicate of size, may be taken as in the accusative, 
originative, or genitive case ; as, 

1 The tower was eighty feet high ;' or, 

' The tower was high eighty feet/ 

Here we find the eighty feet with the reaching of the tower, 
or its predicate, ' was high ' through them ; so that they are 
accusative by art, 264. 

' The tower was high to or through eighty feet.' 

We find the eighty feet as the spaces wherefrom the tower 
is high, and the ' wherefrom ' to the predicate ' was high ; ' 
and (by art. 261) it may be taken for the ' whereof ' {gen.) case. 

Thence the Latin rule, ' Magnitudinis mensura subjicitur 
adjectivis in accusativo, ablativo, et genitivo/ 

333. To one who does not know the formation and primary 
meanings of the verbs and prepositions of a language, its 
formulae of speech will sometimes seem to break the laws of 
case, while they conform to them. 

Thus, if we took vescor for a verb of the active instead of 
the middle voice, and deemed it equal to our word eat, or the 
Latin edo, wc should wonder why it should be used with an 
ablative rather than an accusative case-form j but when we find 
that it is a verb of the middle voice, and means ' 1 feed myself/ 
we sec that as the thing with which I feed myself is the instru- 



144 ETYMOLOGY. 

ment of the action of feeding, so its name should take the 
instrumentive case-form, the Latin ablative. 

So in Irish, the verb substantive cairn, to be or become, 
takes a noun that will be a nominative in English, with a pre- 
position in or into, or some such tokens of the accusative case. 

f Ta me am' }:eap/ is c I am into a man/ ( I am into my man/ 
This, however, would be a formula for a man who is no longer 
a child or boy. It means I am no longer a child or boy ; ' I 
am come into a man/ Therefore the formula ' 1 am a man 
and no longer a child/ is ' I am into a (or my) man ; ' and the 
formula for ' I am a man, and not a woman/ is ' I am a man/ 

These cases, out of hundreds and thousands in different 
languages, may warn us not to think the laws of case are 
broken till we can thoroughly analyze every formula that may 
seem to break them. 

334. It is often said by grammarians when they talk of cases, 
and especially of the twofold cases, or the shifting of them, 
that they are governed by prepositions, which are understood 
if they are not given ; so that if one Latin author has written 
' ~E\imfurti accusat/ and another c ~E\imfurto accusat/ we are 
told that furto is governed by a preposition de, understood. 
This may be quite true, as it may be true that in ' ivit ad 
urbem/ and ' ivit ab urbe/ urbem is governed by ad, and urbe 
is governed by ab ; but yet it does not stop off our inquiry for 
the grounds upon which the preposition de or ad or ab was 
chosen, and needed or allowed in such cases, or upon which it 
should govern one case-form rather than another, and nothing 
short of an answer to that inquiry can enlighten us on the 
laws of case. 

335. It may be said against a system of natural cases, that 
to discriminate so many classes of the logical relations of 
things upon what may be deemed slight differences or like- 
nesses, and to unfold so many shiftings of twofold cases, is to 
make grammar needlessly perplexing. To this it may be 
answered, that all the logical relations of things are in nature, 
and if they are manifold there is no help for it : we may ahut 
our eyes to them, but we cannot lessen them. They have 
been brought in sundry classes under the thought of men of 
all nations, as they have shown by the structure of their lan- 
guages, and our minds will miss the good of what should be 



ETYMOLOGY. 



145 



a wit-sharpening exercise, the learning of grammar, if we 
wilfully keep them out of thought. 

In Basque the genitive and possessive cases are off-marked 
by two sundry endings or case-forms, (l-\-ez) and (l-\-aren) ; 
and in French the two associatives are marked by different 
prepositions ; as, ' II se promena avec son pere/ with avec for 
with ; and ' II ecrit d'xrne plume/ with de for with. 

Botanists tell us that there are three or four hundred 
orders of plants, and more than a thousand species of the 
' leguminosse/ It is not by an idle wish that one can know 
them all, but there is no help for it. Botanists might, it is 
true, have stopped with the discrimination of the five great 
classes of plants ; but still they would not therefore have 
lessened the numbers of the orders or species, or made them 
more like or unlike one another, or have left the knowledge 
of plants of more easy attainment. 



336. 



PRONOUNS. 



Pronouns are of two kinds, pronouns which are used for 
nouns, and called personal pronouns, and pronouns which are 
used withy but not for nouns, and called limiting pronouns. 

337. Personal Pronouns. 

Personal pronouns are words that betoken things, not by their 
names, but by their number, gender, and relation to the speech. 

The personal pronouns are of much use instead of unknown 
names of persons, and instead of known names of persons 
and things when they come very often under speech. 

The English personal pronouns are, — 

I, we. thou, ye, you. he, she, it, they. 

The likeness of the personal pronouns, especially those of the first 
and second persons singular, in the Indo-Teutonic languages is rather 
markworthv. 



English . 


. I* . . 


thou. 


Icelandic . ek . 


|>u. 


Latin . . 


eg-o . . 


tu. 


Swedish . . jag (yag) 


du. 


Greek 


t'y-u) . 


(TV. 


Danish . . jeg (yeg) 


du. 


Italian 


i-o . 


tu. 


Irish ... me . 


tu. 


Spanish . 


y-o . 


tu. 


Welsh . . mi . 


. ti. 


A.-Saxon 


ic 


Jm. 


Russian . . menya . 


ti 


German . . 


ich . 


du. 


Persian . . man . 


ter. 


Gothic . 


ik . 


K 


Hindoostanee . main . 

7 


. tin. 



146 



ETYMOLOGY. 



In Coptic there are two pronouns for the second person 
singular ; one for the masculine, ntok (thou) masculine, ntotn 
(thou) feminine. 

/ is the first person singular, being the pronoun by which a 
speaker betokens himself. 

Thou is the second person singular, being the pronoun by 
which a first person designates a second. 

He, she, or it, is the third person singular, being the pro- 
noun by which a first person designates one third person. 

We is the first person plural, being the pronoun by which a 
first person designates those of which he is one. 

Ye or you is the second person plural, being the pronoun 
by which a first person designates more than one second person. 

They is the third personal plural, being the pronoun by 
which a first person designates more than one third. 

He is masculine, she is feminine, it is neuter. 

7, thou, we, ye or you, and they, are of all genders. 



The English pronouns are declined thus : 



Singular. 

JSominative . . I, 
Possessive ") 
Genitive . ) ^' 



Other cases 



C me, 



Plural. 

we. 
our, ours, 
us, 



Thou. 
Nominative 



Singular. 

thou, 



Plural. 



Possessive ") ,, ,, . 

Genitive . j thymine, your.yours. 



Other cases 



\ with prepositions. 
Lapponic has a dual form of pronoun. 

She. 



C thee, you. 
\ with prepositions. 



He. 

Singular. Plural. 

Nominative . he, they. 

t, . ( his, ( their, theirs, 

Possessive | ofhim; | offtem _ 

Genitive . . of him, of them, 
/-v.i C him, them, 

( with prepositions. 



Nominative 



Other cases 



Singular. 

she, 



Plural. 

they. 

-r, • ( her, hers ("their, theirs 

Possessive, < e \ « ? . , 

( ot her, ( of them. 

Genitive . . of her, of them. 

( her, them, 

( with prepositions. 



It 

Nominative 
Possessive 
Genitive 
Other cases 



.!• 



Singular. Plural. 

. it, they. 

. its, of it, their, theirs, of them. 

. it, them, . with prepositions. 



338. From notions of politeness, many nations designate a 
single second or third person, deemed worthy of high esteem, 



ETYMOLOGY. 147 

by a pronoun of another person, or of the plural instead of 
the singular number ; as, 

1 Will you (for wilt thou) sit down V { I thank you (for thee) ' 

French, ' Youlez-vous (for Yeux-tu) me faire le faveur ? ' 
( Je vous (for te) remercie.' 

So in IHyric. 

Germ., ( Wie befinden sie sich?' 'Howdo^ei/ (for dost 
thou) find themselves (for thyself) V ' How art ^ow . ? ' 

In Basque there is a respectful form of the second person 
singular ; as, hi, hie, thou, homely; eu, euc, thou, respectful. 

In Japanese there are pronouns, of several forms of 
worthiness, for the first and second as well as the third per- 
son ; so that a speaker may honour a second or third person 
with a more worthy pronoun, while he may take a less worthy 
one for himself, or may uphold his own dignity by taking of 
a more worthy one for himself, and a less worthy one for 
another person. 

In Bisaya, quita (we) is used for aco (I), the first person 
plural, for the first personal singular, as Horace often writes 
nos (we) for himself. 

339. In English, and most other languages of the old 
world, the pronoun of the first person plural is ambiguous. 

We may mean / and thou, I and ye, I and he, or / and they ; 
but in the Cree language there is a pronoun for a first and 
second person, and another for a first and third. 

Kethdnow, (1+2) we, (I and thou) or (I and ye). 
Nethanan, (1+3) we, (I and he) or (I and they). 

The case (1+3) is sometimes met in Anglo-Saxon by wit 
(we) and the name of a third person : ( wit Stilling/ ' we 
Stilling/ '/and Stilling/ 

In the sentence l we are all sinners/ we is inclusive 
(1+2+3) ; but in ' we beseech thee/ we is exclusive (1+3). 

So the Polynesian tongues, and the Bisaya and some of 
the sister ones of the Malay family, have two pronouns, one 
inclusive (1+2+3), and the other exclusive (1+3). 

Bisaya, we inclusive (1+2+3) is quita; exclusive (1+3) cami. 
Tonga, ive inclusive (1+2+3) is toiv ; exclusive (1+3) mow. 
So in Bisaya, sir a (they) j sir a Pedro, they Peter ; Peter 
and those with him, ol Usrpov. 



148 ETYMOLOGY. 

So our pronoun his is indeterminate in the sentence f John 
has been at play with Henry, and broken his bat/ in which his 
bat may mean John's or Henry's. Some languages, such as 
Latin, Swedish, and Hindoostanee, have two pronouns for our 
his, and therefore they are of more discriminate meaning. 

Latin, ejus, his (another's) ; suits, his own. 

Hindoostanee, uiska, his (another's) ; apna, his own. 

Illyric, njihbv, his (another's) ; svoj, his own. 

Swedish, hans, his (another's) ; sin, his own. 

340. They is often used as an indeterminate pronoun for 
folk at large ; as, ' they say there will be war.' Instead of the 
pronoun of the third person plural, the French use ' on ' one ; 
as, f on dit que/ &c. 

341. Our pronouns, self, (A.-Saxon, sylf, German, selber,) 
myself, thyself, himself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves, are 
now very anomalous, since those of the first and second 
persons are shapen from possessive forms of the pronouns my, 
thy, our, your, as if self were a noun ; and those of the third 
persons are shapen upon other case-forms, him, them. If 
myself should be myself, then himself should be hisself; or,if 
himself should be himself, then myself should be meself. 

In Anglo-Saxon and Icelandic, the pronoun with sylf, sjdlf, 
self, is inflected; as, A.-Sax. icsylf, iself; fram me sylfum, 
from meself (myself). 

-Self is emphatic and reflective; as, ' I myself will awake;' 
f I will wash myself. 3 

In Anglo-Saxon and older English, the pronouns without 
the self were more often taken as reflective pronouns. 
A.-Sax., " Ic me reste ;" f I rest me.' 

The co-operative forms of the Latin pronouns mecum, tecum, 
secum, have taken the preposition cum, con, again as a prefix 
in Spanish, and are become commiyo, contigo, consigo ; i. e., 
cummecum, cumtecum, &c. 

342. The English case-forms of he and she have sprung, by 
syncope and crasis, from the Anglo-Saxon pronouns he and 
heo, with their case-endings. 

Nom., He, he ; He-o, she. 

Gen,, He-es, his; He-ere, her. 

Dat., He-um, him ; He-ere, her. 



ETYMOLOGY. 149 

343. The forms my, thy, his, her, our, your, their, are used 
before the noun of the thing possessed, or begotten of the 
possessive or genitive person; as, 'this is my dog;' f the 
painter has sold his picture :' and the forms mine, thine, hers, 
ours, yours, and theirs, are used without the nouns of the 
things possessed or begotten; as, ( whose dog is that?' — 
' mine ;' c whose picture is that V — ' thine.' 

The first forms, my, thy, &c. answer to the French mon, ton, 
&c, and German mein, dein; and the forms mine, thine, &c. 
answer to the French le mien, le tien, &c, and German der 
meinige, der deinige, &c. 

In Cheremissian there are two forms of personal pronouns, 
the long form without the noun, and the short one with it. 

Some tongues have possessive suffixes instead of the pro- 
nouns my, thy, his, &c. 

In Lapponic, they are -m (my), -t (thy), -s (his), &c, which 
are the first letters of the pronouns ; as, 

Zjalma-m (my eye), zjalma-t (thy eye), zjalma-s (his eye;. 

So in Hebrew and Koordish. 

344. Limiting Pronouns. 

A limiting pronoun is a word which limits a predicate to 
all or a part of the things of a name; as, one bird, or each 
bird, or this bird, has been shot ; or three birds, or many birds, 
or these birds, have been shot. 

345. The limiting pronouns are of several classes; some 
are indefinite, such as one, some, any, few, several, many, 
another, other, such, both, all. 

One, some, any, limit a predicate loosely to any one thing 
of its name ; as, ' give me one book, some book, or any book/ 

Few, some, many, much, little, limit a predicate loosely to a 
share of the things of a name; as, 'he has few books, some 
books, or many books ; ' ' much or little paper/ 

Another or other limits a predicate to a different number or 
individual of the things of a name from that of another fore- 
going predicate ; as, ( this is a bad pen/ * these are bad pens ; ' 
* I must get another pen, or other pens/ 

Both limits a predicate to two known things of their name ; 
as, ' both of his gloves are lost.' 

Some of the indefinite pronouns, few, some, many, much, 



150 ETYMOLOGY. 

little, have forms for comparatively greater or smaller numbers 
or quantities : 

few, fewer, fewest; much, more, most, 

many, more, most; little, less, least. 

Such limits a predicate to an individual or share of the 
things of a name, like one of another foregoing predicate; 
as ' such good boys deserve praise/ 

All limits a predicate to the whole of the things of their 
name ; as, ' all men are mortal/ 

346. Each, Every, Either, Neither, are 

Distributive Pronouns. 

They limit a predicate to the individuals of their name, 
singly and not collectively ; as, ' each man drew his sword ; ' 
• every boy showed up his exercise / 'I have not bought either 
of the horses/ Neither is a compound of not either, ne segSer, 
or after. 

347. This, That, These, Those, are 
Demonstrative Pronouns. 

They limit a predicate to things to which the sight is 
directed by some bodily action, or to which the mind is 
directed by language; as, 'look on this picture and on that; 3 
' this is the sacrifice that I have chosen/ 

This, with its plural form these, shows a nearer thing ; and 
that, with its plural those, marks a farther one, as 'this is a 
better picture than that.' 

This also means the latter noun in a sentence, and that the 
former ; as, ' wealth and poverty are both temptations ; — that 
begets pride, this discontent/ 

Ought and nought are compounds from the Anglo-Saxon 
wiht, wuht, creature, being; wight, whit. 

Ought is from dn-wiht, d-wiht, a thing ; and nought is from 
ndn-wiht, nd-wiht, no-thing; Latin, ne quid; Greek, o'-$-6V. 

In languages which have only one demonstrative pronoun 
for the nearer and farther thing, and indeed in some others, 
one of them is sometimes emphatically marked from the other 
by an adverb, here or there; as, ' this here/ 'that there/ and 
in French, ceci, 'that here/ and cela, 'that there/ Greek, 
sveTvo; (from ivLst), * the one there.' 



ETYMOLOGY. 151 

348. Who, Which, That, 

Relative. 

Who, which, and that limit a predicate to a foregoing noun, 
which is called its antecedent ; as, " Blessed are the dead that 
die in the Lord." Who now relates to persons, and which to 
things without reason and animal life; as, 'the man who is 
good is happy ;' ' this is the horse which I bought;' ' this is 
the tree which I planted/ That relates to nouns of all kinds, 
as c the man that hath done this thing shall surely die;' ' this 
is the sacrifice that I have chosen/ 

Which was formerly used as a relative to a person as well as 
an inanimate thing ; as, " Our Father, which art in heaven." 

Who, which, and what are used for interrogative pronouns 
as well as relative ones; as, 'who is that?' 'which is the 
house?' ' what do you say?' 

Whether was once in use as an interrogative. It means 
which of the two ; as, " show whether of these two thou hast 
chosen." — Acts i. 24. 

Wlio is thus declined : 
Nominative . . . who. Possessive, Genitive . . . whose, of whom. 
Other cases .... whom, with prepositions 

The relative pronouns are sometimes used without their 
antecedent ; as, c I know* who did it,' i. e., the ( person who/ 
&c., unless this formula is that of the question, ( who did it? ' 
Ans., ' I know who did it.' 

Some languages, Greek, Welsh, and Hindoostanee, have 
pronouns of two forms for our who, which, and what, one set 
of relative ones, and another of interrogative ones ; as, 
Greek, og t who, relative ; rig, who, interrogative. 

In the Japanese and Mongolian the relative pronoun is not 
used. The formula ' the man who is come,' yields to another, 
in which the verb-root is placed before the noun man, and 
which means ' the come-man,' i. e., l the coming-man.' 

So in Mongolian, the relative pronoun and verb give place 
to a participle, and the formula ( the man who spoke,' is ' the 
having-spoken man;' f the girl whose eyes glisten like the 
sun,' is ' the sunshine-like eyed girl ; ' ' the book which thou 
gavest me/ is ( thy to-me- given book.' 



152 



ETYMOLOGY. 



349. Indefinite. 

Whoever, Whichever, Whatever, Whosoever, Whichsoever, 
Whatsoever, Whoso. 

These pronouns limit a predicate loosely to any person or 
thing; as, ( whoever, or whichever, may ask shall receive;' 
' do whatever you like/ 

The pronoun who in whoever, whoso, whosoever, is declined 
like who, and takes -so, -ever, soever on to its sundry case- 
forms. 

" Whoso rewardeth evil for good, evil shall not depart from 
his house." — (Prov. xvii. 13.) 

" Whosesoever sins ye remit, they are remitted unto them." 
—(John xx. 23.) 

" To whomsoever I will, I give it." — (Luke iv. 6.) 

These pronouns are relatives to antecedents understood. 

They are equal to the Latin quicunque, quivis ; qui, who, 
vis, you will ; quilibet, qui, who, libet, it pleases. 



350. 



Numeral Pronouns. 



The numeral pronouns are of two kinds, cardinal numbers 
and ordinal numbers. 



351. The cardinal numeral pronouns are one, two, three, 
and like numbers onward ; and they limit a predicate to some 
number of the things of a name. 

352. The ordinal numbers are first, second, third, and like 
numbers onward ; and they limit a predicate to a thing of a 
name of which they mark the order among others. 



Cardinal. 


Ordinal. 


Cardinal. 


Ordinal. 


one, 


first. 


eleven, 


eleventh. 


two, 


second. 


twelve, 


twelfth. 


three, 


third. 


thirteen, 


thirteenth. 


four, 


fourth. 


fourteen, 


fourteenth. 


five, 


fifth. 


fifteen, 


fifteenth. 


six, 


sixth. 


sixteen, 


sixteenth. 


seven, 


seventh. 


seventeen, 


seventeenth 


eight, 


eighth, 


eighteen, 


eighteenth. 


nine, 


ninth. 


nineteen, 


nineteenth. 


ten, 


tenth. 


twenty, 


twentieth. 



ETYMOLOGY. 




Cardinal. Ordinal. 


Cardinal. 


Ordinal. 


thirty, thirtieth. 


eighty, 


eightieth. 


forty, fortieth. 


ninety, 


ninetieth. 


fifty, fiftieth. 


hundred, 


hundredth. 


sixty, sixtieth. 


thousand, 


thousandth 


seventy, seventieth. 


million. 


millioneth. 


In Magyar, the ordinal numbers end in 


dik. 


In Bisaya, polo, ten ; ica-polo, tenth. 





153 



353. It is markworthy, that in most languages the number 
ten is so taken for a base, that the names of numbers from one 
ten to two tens (twenty), (A.-Sax. twentig, Du. twintig, Germ. 
zwanzig), and the names of tens from one ten to ten tens 
(a hundred) are formed from the name or some token of ten. 
Sixteen (Du. zestien, A.-Sax. sixty ne, Germ, sechzehn, Norse 
sextan,) is formed from six and the name of ten, and sixty 
(Du. zestig, A.-Sax. sixtig, Germ, sechzig, Norse sextiu,) is 
formed of six, and an ending betokening a multiple — ten. 

The cause of this phenomenon might have been, that man- 
kind at first reckoned with their ten fingers and thumbs, and 
took them as units, tens, and hundreds, which we still call 
digits {digiti, fingers). 

So there seems some likeness of the 

Greek, Six-a, J#x-tuAo£. 

Latin, dec-em, dig-iti. 

Germ., zehn, zehe, toe. 

Hawaii, lima (five), lima, hand. 

Kleinschmidt, in his Greenlandish Grammar, says, " that 
they reckon in Greenlandish not to 10 but to 5, or only to 
the end of one hand ; then they begin with the same numerals 
on the other hand, and so on to one and the other foot. When 
all the fingers and toes are reckoned, a man is reckoned out, 
and they begin with another, and then with a third. They 
have tale-words and limb-words, to show on what limb or in 
what five they are reckoning, as arfinek-atausek, 6, or second- 
hand one; arkanek-pingasut, first foot, three, or 13." 

We have some traces of this limb-reckoning in Welsh, in 
which we find dau ar bymtheg, two and fifteen, or 2 and 3 
limbs, for 17; and pedwar ar bymtheg, four and fifteen for 
19 ; and in English, French, and Lazish, where men reckon 
by scores, of which one is one man-tale, or the four limbs ; as, 
four score, French, quatre-vingt. 

n 



154 ETYMOLOGY. 

The Gothic gives us a clue to the first meaning of our words 
eleven and twelve, from the verb lif-an, to leave. 
In Gothic, eleven is ain-lif, i.e. one leave, one left over the ten. 
twelve is twa-lif, i.e. two leave, two left over the ten. 

354. The ordinal numbers are used with the cardinal ones, 
as names of the aliquot shares of integers, as thirds, fifths, or 
others ; as in the fractions two-thirds, three-fifths. 

355. In some of the Teutonic languages, as well as in Greek 
and Latin, there is a mark worthy mode of telling mixed 
quantities of integers and halves. It is one in which the 
number of the integers is not given, but implied in the num- 
ber of uneven halves; as, A.-Sax. ]>ridde-healf, Germ, dritte- 
halb, i. e. the third-half, which means 2\, as the number is 
one in which uneven halves occur three times, as \, \\, Z\. 

Herodotus describes some demiplinths of gold, " rpfrov 
JlxirciKuvTov 2y.u<ttov eXhovtu," each weighing the third half- 
talent, i.e. two talents and a half, (Herod., book i. §50) ; and the 
Latin term, sestertius, which is contracted of semis tertius, i. e. 
the third half, as, means two asses or pounds and a half. 

Some of our ordinals, third, fourth, fifth, &c, are used in 
two ways, — as ordinal of things, the fifth loaf, the third acre; 
and divisive of things, as the fifth of a loaf, the third of a field. 

In Lapponic, however, these two offices are taken by sundry 
pronouns; as, colmad (ordinal), colmadas (divisive). 

In Kafir, instead of the ordinals they use the cardinals in 
the possessive case ; as, ' the day of four/ for [ the fourth day/ 

356. Articles. 

Two of the limiting pronouns, an and the, are called articles. 
They limit a predicate either definitely or indefinitely to one 
thing of its name; as, an object, the object. 

An has now become a before a consonant or strong breath- 
ing; as, a man, once awmanj a horse, once an horse. 

A or an is called the indefinite article, since it limits a pre- 
dicate to one thing of its name, without marking which one ; 
as, a man, an arm. 

The is called the definite article, because it limits a predicate 
to some marked thing ; as, i the horse is sold ;' { the letters are 
received/ 

The indefinite article an, a, is the Anglo-Saxon numeral 
pronoun, an, one ; and in French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, 



ETYMOLOGY. 155 

German, Dutch, Turkish, and Hindoostanee, the indefinite 
article and the numeral pronoun one are the same word. 

So in Anglo-Saxon se, seo, Ifxst, is both the definite article 
and the demonstrative pronoun that ; while the definite article 
in Italian, French, Spanish, and Portuguese, il, el, lo, la, are 
fragments of the Latin pronoun ille, which seems itself to be 
an article in the expression, Alexander ille magnus. 

In the Scandinavian division of the Teutonic tongues, such 
as Norse and Swedish, the definite article is sometimes suffixed 
to the noun ; as, Norse, ' skip-it, 3 the ship ; Swedish, ' konung- 
en/ the king; Danish, ' grav-en, } the grave. 

In the Bisaya there are two articles, an or ang, definite ; and 
in, ing, i, indefinite ; ang tauo, the man ; ing tauo, man. 

357. ADJECTIVES. 

An adjective is a word to tell the quality of a thing. 
Adjectives are of different forms. 

358. Stem Adjectives, 

from Verb -roots. 
Moots. Adjectives. 

bite bitter. 

A.-Sax., blic-an, Germ., blink-en, to shine blank. 

brenn-an, to burn brown. 

Gothic, balth-j-an, to dare bold. 

A.-Sax., blend-ian, to dazzle blind. 

blow (whence A.-Sax., bleo, color) blue. 

dip deep. 

A.-Sax., drig-an, wither, dry dry. 

0. Goth., ar-an, A.-Sax., earni-an, work earnest. 

Gothic, fahg-an, to be pleased fair; A.-S., fseger. 

Gothic, fast-an, keep fast. 

Gothic, fody-an, feed fat. 

fill full. 

flow, fly fleet. 

grow . green, great (Du. groot). 

heat hot. 

let, hinder late. 

ledd, vulgus lewd. 

he low. 

A.-Sax., hlyd-an, sound loud. 

melt mild. 

rec-an, stretch right. 



1 56 ETYMOLOGY. 

Roots. Adjectives. 

A.-Sax., rip-an (to reap) ? ripe, rough. 

shear, cut short, sharp. 

A.-Sax., scyl-an (divide, scale off) shallow. 

A.-Sax., slic-an (strike) ? slack, sleek, slight. 

smite smooth. 

stoop steep. 

A. -Sax., strec-an (stretch, as a string) straight. 

A.-Sax., Jnn-an, vanish, wane thin. 

wring, twist wrong. 

In Japanese the verb-root is taken for the adjective. 



359. Form (1 + .) 

(! + *)■ 

Adjectives of the form (l-\ry) mean with much or many of 
a thing. 

cloud -y, hill-y, ston-y, water-y, 

grass-y, nois-y, storm-y, wind-y. 

In Latin this form is (l-\-osus), (l-{-tus), (\-\-ulentus) ; as, 
nubil-osus, gramin-osus, mont-osus, onus-tus, funes-tus, lut- 
ulentus, pulver-ulentus. 

In Greek it is {l+^v\g), Kibutivis. 
In Anglo-Sax., Germ., and Dutch, it is (\-\-ig) : 
A.-Sax., dreor-ig; Germ., traur-ig, dreary; Du., doorn-ig, 
thorny. 

In M.Goth., (l+ahs), (1+ags) ; Icel., (1+ugf), (l+igt). 

Goth., stain -ahs, stony; Icel., bloft-ugt, bloody. 

Welsh, (l-\-og) ; brwyn-og, rushy. 

In Persian, (1+sor), (1+gin), (1-f-nok), &c. 

In Cree, (l-{-woo), (\-\-wun). 

Nippee-wun, it is watery, wet. 
Tonga, ( 1 + a ) . Cheremissian, ( 1 + *rc ) . 

Lapponic, (l-\-eija). Bisaya, (\-\-un). 



380. Form (l+en). 

Adjectives of the form (I -{-en) are material adjectives, 
Cleaning made of the thing (1) . 

lin-en, gold-en, wood-en, wooll-en. 

Adjectives of the form (\-\-en) mean wholly of the thing (1); 



ETYMOLOGY. 157 

but adjectives of the form (l-{-ed) mean having the thing (1) 
on to it : aureus, golden ; auratus, gilded. 

The ending -en is, in A.-Saxon and German, -en; in M.Goth. 
-eins ; in Icelandic, -in. 

A-Sax., fleax-en ; Germ., flachs-en, flaxen ; Goth., stain-eins ; 
Icel., stein-in, stonen. 

Latin, (l-\-eus), (l-\-inus), (l-\-aceus) ; as, argent-eus, fag- 
inus, herb-aceus. 

Greek, (1-J-coff), as apyup-eo;; (l-J-/voc), as Qwa-ivog. 
Welsh, (l-\-aid), (l-\-iri), euraid, golden; mein-in, of stone. 
Persian and Hindoostanee, (1+in), as cjerbin, wooden. 
In Arabic it is ( 1 + j ) . Basque, (1 -\-esco) . 



361. Form (1+ed). 

Adjectives of this form mean, having a thing (1) 
long-legged, minded, gifted. 

Latin, (l-\-*tus)j al-atus, pil-atus, pile-atus, auritus, cornutus. 

Such adjectives are found in other Teutonic languages with 
the representative of our ending ed in its place. 

Bisaya, (l-\-an), (l-\-un) ; calo, hat; calo-an, hatted. 

Basque, (l-\-ada) . Mongolian, (\-\-to) . Australian, (l-\-tidli) . 



362. Form (l+/y.) 

The ending -ly is in A. -Sax. -lie, Germ, -lich, Icel. -ligt, and 
means fitly like ; so that adjectives of this form mean, like or 
belonging to the things named by the nouns : 

friendly, kingly, manly, neighbourly. 
A.-Sax., leof-lic. Germ., lieb-lich, lovely. 

A.-Sax., wif-lic. Germ., weib-lich, womanly. 

Greek, (l+iog), (1+w), {l+mog). 

bvpa.viog % uvtopufttvog, SyfLOTmog. 

In Japanese the place of the adjective (l-\-ly), and others, 
is taken by a noun in the possessive case, tenno, of heaven, 
heavenly ; ' man of good/ for ' good man/ 

Lapponic, (1+tate.) Australian, [\-\-butto.) 



158 ETYMOLOGY. 

Latin, (1-^-anus), mundanus, montanus; 

(l+*/is), capitalis, hostilis, mortalis; 
(l-\-*rius), argentarius, librarius, Hectorius; 
(l-{-ester), campester, equester, pedester; 
(l-\-inus), corvinus, asininus, equinus; 
(l-{-*cus), aquaticus; (l-\-ius), patrius; 

(l-\-*rnus), hodiernus, nocturnus; 
(1-^-ivus), furtivus, sestivus; 
(\-\-aris), consularis, militaris; 
(l-\-estis), agrestis, ccelestis. 

Welsh, (\-\-aidd), Irish, (1+map). Arabic, (1+i!). 
Cree, (l-{-wow). Finnic, (l-{-inen.) 

Many of the Latin adjectives, (\-\-orius), {\-\-aris), (l-\-alis), 
(\-\~inus), and Greek ones, are possessive or genitive adjectives 
snch as we want, and for which we use a noun in the possessive 
or genitive form ; as, asses milk, lac asininum ; 

geeses down, lana anserina. 

363. Form (l+ish.) 

Adjectives of this form are of two kinds : 

1st. Adjectives of unfit likeness, meaning unfitly like the 
thing (1) ; as, 

mannish, womanish, brutish, prudish, childish, sottish. 

2nd. Gentile adjectives, meaning of the nation or father- 
land (1) j as, English (Angle-ish), Scottish, Swedish. 

Bisaya, (l-\-nun). Another form in Bisaya is (1), a noun 
with the breathsound ni or in after the first syllable; as, 
from Bisaya comes Bi-ni-saya ; ' Bi-ni-saya nga gaui/ f a 
Bisayan dress/ 

Lat., (l-\-*nus), (l-\-icus), (l-\-ensis), Rom-anus, Angl-ic us ; 
iEgin-ensis. 

Greek, (l-\-iog), (l-\-ivog), (1-\-moq), &c. 

In A.-Saxon the gentile ending -ish, is isc ; Germ., -isch ; 
Icelandic, skt, skr : 

A.-Sax., Englisc. ; Germ., Englisch ; Icel, Eingelskt. 

In Welsh the gentile adjective is of the form (l-\-ig), Seis- 
nig, Saxon; and that of unfit likeness is of the form (\-\-llyd), 
dyfrllyd, waterish. 



ETYMOLOGY. 159 

In Turkish the gentile adjective is (1-f-lui), (1-j-li). 
Istambuilm, a Constantinopolitan. 

Arabic, Persian, and Hindoostanee, (1+i). 

Ar., Afriki, African; Per., Xir^zi, of Shiraz. ; 

Hind., Bengal^ of Bengal. 

364. Form {I + fill.) 

Adjectives of this form mean, full or having much of the 
thing (1). 

beautiful, gainful, joyful, sorrowful, 
fearful, hopeful, scornful, wonderful. 

In Hindoostanee an adjective of the form (1+dor) answers 
to this, though dor means having; as, wafodor, faith- 
having, faithful. 

Feel., (\-\-gjarn) : metnaftar-gjarn, honour- seeking ; 
fe-gjarn, money-seeking. 

365. Form (l + less.) 

This form means, without the thing (1) : 

beardless, hopeless, peerless, 
breathless, lifeless, shapeless, 

friendless, moneyless, sleepless. 
-less is from the root to lose ; and in A. -Saxon is -leas ; Ger- 
man, -los; Dutch, -loos; Icelandic, -laus. 

A.-Sax., synleas, German, sundelos, sinless. 

Dutch, vaderloos, fatherless. Icel., vopnlaus, weaponless. 

Finnic, (\-\~ton.) Hawaii, (l-\-ole.) 

In Greek the answering form is (a-f-1), dtfiiurog, cl^qpqqq. 

And in Hindoostanee (lo + l), where lo is the preposition 
without; logory, without help, helpless. 

So in Latin its form is sometimes (ex-\-\) ; as, exanimis, 
exsanguis. 

Cheremissian, (l-\-temci). Australian, (l-{-tinna). 

Lapponic, (l-\-ac), (Intern), (l-^-tis). 

366. Form (1+ward.) 

This form means, toward the thing (1) ; as, homeward, 
heavenward. 

In German, -ward is -v'drts ; in A-Saxon, -weard ; in 
Norse, -vert. 



160 etymology. 

367. Form (1 + 1.) 

The Persian and Turkish are very rich of these adjectives : 

psri rowi, angel-face. 

Jjr dil, lion-heart. 

Lolo - rmkh, tulip-cheek. 

Latin, anguicomus, anguimanus, cornipes. 

Greek, podotixnTvXot;. fioaTig. 

In English they mostly take the form (1+1) ; as, 
cherry-cheek-ed, copper-bottom-ed, ox-ey-ed. 

368. Form (1+2.) 
Headstrong, homeborn, motheaten. 

Latin, pilicrepus, manumissus. 
Greek, /3«A«vvj^opo?, Quatpopog, QeoSorog. 
Icel., jarnsleginn, ironshod. 
Pers., jon-oso, soul-soothing. 

soys' -psrw^r, shade-bred, bred in obscurity. 
Hind., mol-msst, wealth-drunk, i. e. purse-proud. 
Irish, mon^-puab*, hair-red, red-haired; bapp - b'pir te, 
top-broken, broken at top. * 

369. Form (1 + 3.) 

Lat., Lucifer (lux-fero) ; laniger (lana-gero) ; multibibus 
(multum-bibo) ; florilegus (flores-lego) ; puerpera (puer-pario) ; 
clarisonus (clarum-sono) . 

370. Form (2 + .). 

371. Form (2+ish.) 

These adjectives are of weak meaning, and mark a low form 
of the quality, — rather of a quality : 

blackish, longish, 

brownish. shortish. 

In Cree its form is (2-\-issu), misshigitt-u, he is large; 

misshigitt-issu, he is largish. 



ETYMOLOGY. 161 

The form of this adjective in Latin is, 
[sub-\-2), subniger, subiratus. (2-{-culus), frigidusculus. 
(2+*/ms), parvulus, misellns. (2+ews), subitan-eus. 
{2+aster.) 

And in Greek (vto+2.) 

In Russian, (2+ovet). Wendish, (2+owy). Kafir, 
(2+ana), (2-\-azana). Magyar, (2-\-ka), (2+ocska). 

372. Form {2+ern). 

A few adjectives of the form (2-\-ern), Icel. (2-^rcBn), mean 
in directions rather towards the quarters of the sky : 
northern, southern, 

eastern, western. 

373. Form (2 + 1). 

The Teutonic, Greek, Persian, and some other languages, 
are very strong in adjectives of the form (2+1) or (2+1* ) 

They are especially powerful and useful as epithets in the 
language of poetry. 

Fair-faced, yellow-haired, gray-headed. 

Two-edged, three-cornered, four-sided, five-leaved, ten- 
stringed. 

Latin, longipes, fissipes, bimembris. 

Greek, /3#6vhoAtoc, $Mq>owog t eKTusrvig, zoXinrovg, oiLoyXuauog. 

Germ., zwei-schneidig. Dutch, vier-voetig. 

Icel., fagur-haerdr, fair-haired. 

In Irish and French, (1+2), cor-lomnoct, foot-bare, bare- 
footed; tete-nue, head-bare, bare-headed. 

Australian, (1+2), kurra, head; wilta, hard; kurrawilta, 
impudent. 

Persian, khuib-ruiwe, fair-faced ; khuij-olhon, sweet-toned. 

374. Form (2 + 2). 

Adjectives of a limiting pronoun and participle : 

almighty, all-wise. 

To this form belongs the Anglo-Saxon riht-wis, rightwise ; 
English, righteous. 

Germ., allmachtig. Icel., almattugr. 



162 ETYMOLOGY. 

M. Goth., allvaldands, all- wielding, all-ruling. 
Latin, altisonans, largiloquus, magnificus. 



375. Form (2 -{-fold) ; threefold, fourfold, manifold. 

M.Goth., (2+falths). A.-Sax., (2+feald). Ger., (2+faltig, 
fach). Dutch, (2+voudig). 

A.- Saxon, ]?reo-feald. German, drey-fach, drey-faltig. 
Dutch, drie-voudig. M. Goth., manag-falths, 

To this form belong also such adjectives as bitter-sweet, and 
the intensitive or superlative adjectives formed, in Hindoostanee 
and some other languages, by a repetition of the positive form 
of the adjective, as good-good, very good, optimus. 

376. Form (2+3). 

377. Form (3+.). 

This is the form of participles : 

loving, loved, spoken. 
The Latin active participle is of the form (3-\-*ns), amans. 
„ passive participle is of the form (3-{-*tus), ama- 

tus, rectus, auditus. 
„ future active participle is of the form [3-{-*turus) , 

meaning going to do the action; as, amaturus, recturus, 



378. The Latin passive gerund participle is (3-{-*ndus), 
and means awaiting the action; as, { liber legendus est; 3 
' the book is to be, ought to be, or must be, read/ 

The Greek (3-\-riog) is of the same meaning ; as, 

atpersog, fiXvireog, yvuaTSog. 
There are other Greek ones of other forms and meanings; as, 

/3A#/3fpo£, yKwKTOQ, fipcaaifxog. 
To this form belongs the Latin adjective (3-\-torius) , as 
auditorius, dormitorius ; and the Latin (3-\-icus), as pudicus. 

379. There is in Latin a highly useful adjective, of the 
form (3-\-*bilis), (3-\-ilis), (3-{-itius), meaning, that can or 
may be the subject of the action (3). 



ETYMOLOGY. 163 

(amo) amabilis, {lego) legibilis, {audio) audibilis, 

amiable. legible. audible. 

{facio) facilis, {findo) fissilis, {frango) fragilis. 

In Greek its forms are {S-\-rog) and {ev-\-3-\-Tog). 

In Basque, {3-\-coi). 

Unluckily, this kind of adjective is wanting in English, 
though our adjective (3 + /^) sometimes takes its place; 
as, lovely. 

We ought not, however, to be in want of an adjective for 
{3-\-*bilis), as such an one is found in German and some 
other of the tongues of our race. 

In German it is (3+W), in which bar, from bear, means 
that can bear or take the action : 

essbar, edibilis; denkbar, intelligibilis ; 

trinkbar, potabilis; furchtbar, formidabilis. 

In Cree the place of this adjective is taken by verb-forms, 
(3+oosw), {3-{-wun) : nok-oosu, he is visible; pey-tak-wun, 
it is audible. 



380. {3-{-some) ; sometimes (2-\-some) . 

This is the form of a very useful adjective of the Teutonic 
languages, though in English it is unluckily much slighted. 
It means, disposed or given to do the action (3) , or be of the 
quality (2). 

frolicsome disposed to frolic. 

quarrelsome .... quick to quarrel. 

irksome likely to irk. 

wearisome tending to weary. 

winsome likely to win. 

In the sentence, ' many things are wholesome that are not 
toothsome;' toothsome is of the form {l-\-some). — A Treatise 
of Repentance. 

The ending some is, in A.-Saxon, -sum ; German, -sam ; 
Dutch, -zaam ; Norse, -sam, -som. 

A.-Sax., wyn-sum; Germ., wonne-sam, winsome. 

Dutch, ge - hoorzaam, hearsome, obedient ; which word 
' obedient ' itself is from ob-audio. 

Icel., gaman-samr, gamesome, playful. 



164 ETYMOLOGY. 

There is a like adjective in Latin of the form (3 -{-ax), 
(3-\-bundus), (3-\-cundus), (3-\-ucus), (3~\-idus), (3-\-ulus), 
(S+*li8), (3+ivus) % 

audax (audeo), loquax (loquor), tenax (teneo). 

furibundus. caducus (cado). 

jucundus, facundus (for), verecundus (vereor). 

frigidus (frigeo), rapidus (rapid) , cupidus (cupio). 

bibulus (bibo), credulus (credo). 

flexilis (flecto), edulis (edo). activus (ago). 

In Cree, the place of this adjective is holden by a verb- 
form ; as, sakehe-wdyoo, he loves. 

sakehe-wdy-wissu, he is lovesome, amorous : 
or, by the frequentive verb, 
nipp-dw, he sleeps. 

nipp-dsku, he sleeps very frequently ; he is sleepsome. 
Australian, (3-\-binna). Lapponic, (3+es), &c. 

The place of our adjective (3-\-some) is taken in Bisaya by 
one of markworthy formation, the foresetting of ma to the 
root, and the insetting of in within it ; as, 

sogot, to hear or obey ; ma-s-in-ogot, hearsome, obedient. 

The Cree language has two forms of verb-adjectives; one 
for an accidental, and another for an essential quality : 
wawg-ow, it is crooked (naturally) ; 
wawg-etayoo, it is bent (i.e., crooked accidentally). 

381. Form (3 + 1). 

382. Form (3 + 2). 

The verb-adjectives in Cree and Japanese are of this form. 

383. Form (3 + 4). 

384. Form (3 + 5). 

385. Form (5+. ) 

From a preposition and ending ; as, 

Lat., ant-icus (ante), Eng., forward, 

post-icus (post), backward, 

In Lapponic many adjectives are formed from prepositions. 
They are of the form (5-\-satz), such, in meaning, as to-ly, 
by-ly, near-ly, round-ly, within-ly, under-ly, over-ly. 



etymology. 165 

386. Forms (5+1), (5+1+.). 
Eng., uphill, offhand; underhanded, afterwitted. 
Latin, commodus {cum, modus) ; deformis (de, forma) ; 

exsanguis, immunis {in, munus) ; exlex, inops. 

Greek, avrfteog, napavoixog. 

387. Form (5 + 2). 

There is a large body of adjectives and participles of the 
form (5+2). 

Eng., thorough-spun, offcast, undercut, overlarge. 

Latin,. Prse-dives, pree-longus, sub-niger, im-possibilis, per- 
grandis, sup-plex, prse-stans. 

Greek, <rvv-Tpo<pog, (jv[L-^u%oq t eViAeuxo;, nupeyyvg. 

388. Form (5+3). 

389. Forms (4+1) and (4+1+.). 
Eng., well-manned, ill-conditioned. 

Greek, cidciHpvg («, ScLupv), evysug (fu, yyj), $vj-o$og. 

390. Forms (4+2) and (4+3). 

This is the form of many participles and some adjectives, 
Eng., well-born, ill-bred, new-made, ill-looking, highly - 

finished. 

Greek, ev<pvv\g (ev, <pvu), dt,Kv\tov\g (a, A^Ow), Iva-aoog ($vg % <roog). 

391. Negative Adjectives. 

In English, German, and Gothic, the form of the negative 
adjective is (im+2) ; Dutch, {on-j-2) ; Norse and Swedish, 
(o + 2). 

Eng., unknown, unseen, untrue, unfaithful. 

Lat., (iw+2), (e?£s+2),infelix, innocens, dissimilis, disjunctus. 

392. The place of adjectives of quality is often taken by a 
noun in the possessive form; as, a man of wealth, for a 
wealthy man. 

This is more especially the formula of the Shemitic lan- 
guages, as it is that of the Japanese. 



166 ETYMOLOGY. 

393. Comparison of Adjectives, 

Adjectives have mostly three different forms or tokens for 
the comparing of the sundry forms of a quality. 

394. The three forms of an adjective or quality are called, 
all together, the degrees of comparison ; and singly, the posi- 
tive degree, the comparative degree, and the superlative degree. 

395. The positive degree names only the quality of a thing ; 
as, good, wise, great. 

396. The comparative degree names the quality of a thing, 
as of higher or lower form than some quality of the same 
name ; as, wiser, less wise. 

397. The superlative degree names the highest or lowest 
form of a quality ; as, wisest, least wise. 

398. The regular form of the comparative degree, in 
English, A.-Saxon, and German, is (2+*r) ; as, blacker, 
whiter, longer, shorter. Norse, (2+r«). 

Latin, (2-\-ior), (2+ius). 

Greek, (2+OTep), (2+eVTep). 

Welsh, {2+ach). 

Turkish, (2+r*£), {dakhi+2), (c.erk+2). 

Persian, (2-\-tar). Magyar, (2-\-obb). 

The English comparative form (2+er) sometimes gives 
place to the form (more-\-2), as more amiable. 

This form, (4+2), as more excellent, is that of the Turkish 
(dakki+2) and (c.ok+2). 

399. The regular form of the superlative degree, in English, 
A.-Saxon, German, and Norse, is (2+*s/) ; as, whit-est, 
black-est, long-est, short-est. 

Latin, (2^-issim), (2-\-lim). 

Greek, (2+ot«t), (2+£Vt#t). 

Welsh, (2+fl/). Turkish, (2+si), (2+i). 

Persian, (2+tarin). Magyar, (leg-\-2-\-obb). 

A very high or low form of a quality is often betokened by 
an adverb and adjective (4 + 2). Very good; Latin, valde 
bonum : and, in Tonga and Hindoostanee, by the repetition of 
the positive form of the adjective, as good-good, 



ETYMOLOGY. 167 

400. Some adjectives have irregular forms of comparison, 
inasmuch as some, if not all of them, are formed from sundry 
roots; as, good, better, best, (betest, betst, be'st). Better and 
best are not formed from good, but from some such root as bet. 

Bad, worse, worst. Worse and worst are not formed from 
bad, but from some such root as wor. In the Vercelli MS. 
weor stands for bad ; thence 

weor, weorer, weors, weorest, weor'st, by 
substitution bad, worse, worst. 

Much or many, more, most. More and most are not formed 
from much or many, but from ma or mo, much or many, whence 
ma, mo; mo-er, more; moest, mo'st. 

fur, far ; further, farther ; furthest, farthest. 
A.- Saw., forS, forSer. forSest. 

401. Adjectives, Definite and Indefinite. 

In some languages, such as the Anglo-Saxon, German, 
Swedish, and Icelandic, there are two forms of the adjective, 
one for definite and another for indefinite nouns ; as, 
A.-Saa?., an god man; a good man. 

se goda man ; the good man. 

402. Some adjectives of the form (5+.) are compared 
(5), (5+er), (5-{-ermosf) , (5-{-most). 
fore . formore (former) foremost*. 

forS .... further furthermost, 

in inner innermost, inmost, 

out outer outermost, outmost, utmost. 

up upper uppermost, upmost. 

under undermost. 

fore forer forest, forst, first. 

late . . . later, latter latest, la'st, last. 

nigh, (A.-S., neah) neaher, near . . neahest, next. 

403. Second Concord. 

In languages with many case -forms, the adjective is de- 
clined or takes the case -form or case-tokens of the gender, 
number, and case of the noun to which it belongs. 

This concord of the adjective with the noun is called the 
Second Concord. 

* Unless former is the comparative of the A.-Saxon forma, first ; and fore- 
most is a broken form of fyrmest or formest. 



168 ETYMOLOGY. 

Latin, bonus dominus ; bona puella. 

In English, Turkish, Mongolian, and Lazish, the adjective 
is not declined. 

In Coptic the adjective has endings for the persons, as well 
as for the genders and numbers. 



404. VERBS. 

A verb is a word which names being or action ; as, to be J 
to strike, to fly, 

405. Verbs are in their kind active or transitive; or neuter 
or intransitive. 

406. An active or transitive verb is the name of an action 
that one thing may do to another, or that can go over from an 
agent to an object ; as, to strike : a boy may strike a ball. 

407. A neuter or an intransitive verb is the name of an 
action that one thing cannot do to another, or that cannot go 
over from an agent to an object ; as, to weep : a boy cannot 
weep a thing. 

Verbs are of sundry forms. 

408. Form (3). 
Moot - Verbs. 

As bind, cling, drink, find, give, hang, ring, sing, tear, win. 

409. Form (1) or (1+.) 

Noun-Verbs. 

There are verbs which are made from nouns, and in English 
are in the form of the noun. They mean to affect, in some 
mode, with the thing whose name they bear. 

to butter. to feather (a nest), to stone. 

„ book (a parcel). „ behead. „ salt. 

„ dung (a field) . „ enthrone. „ shoe. 

„ chalk. „ unmask. „ paper (a room) . 

„ arm. „ nail. „ water. 

„ air (linen). „ pin. 

Some English noun-verbs are formed from nouns by a 
change of clipping or breathing : as, from 
glass comes glaze ; grass comes graze ; 
hook comes hitch ; house (hous) comes house (houz) . 



etymology. 169 

410. Strong and "Weak Verbs. 

It is markworthy, that these two kinds of verbs, the root- 
verbs and the noun-verbs, differ very widely in their accidence, 
as the root-verbs are mostly strong verbs, and the noun- verbs 
are weak ones. 

411. We have a few of these noun-verbs of the forms 

(1+*J), (l+er) : 

spark, speck, nose, side, knee, 

sparkle. speckle. nuzzle. sidle. kneel. 

From cate we have cater : 

' A crust, without any other cates or dishes/ 

Cleaver on the Proverbs. 

412. Strong and weak verbs are forms common to the 
Teutonic tongues. 

A strong verb is one which takes its past-tense form from 
its present-tense form by a change of breathsound, but not of 
clipping; as, 

bind, bound. find, found. si 11 ©* sang. 

cling, clung. gi y e, gave. tear, tore. 

drink, drank. ring, rang. win, won. 

413. A weak verb is one that takes its past-tense form from 
its present-tense form by an additional clipping or articulate 
sound; as, (*d) ; A.-S., -ode; M.Goth., -ida ; Germ., -et ; 
Norse, -■Si, -di, -ti ; Swed. and Dan., -de : 

butter, butter-ed. air, air-ed. stone, ston-ed. 

book, book-ed. feather, feather-ed. salt, salt-ed. 
chalk, chalk -ed. nail, nail-ed. water, water-ed. 

414. The strong verbs were formed when the Teutonic 
mother-tongue was young and strong, with a forming power 
that all the Teutonic dialects have now lost ; so that neither 
of them can any more produce a new verb of the strong 
form : and therefore all new verbs, whether noun- verbs (as 
to stucco, to lampoon, to carpet, to stone), or adjective- verbs 
(as whiten, blacken, shorten, lengthen), or borrowed verbs (as 
imitate, stipulate, conduct, retire, develope, engage), take their 
past-tense form from their present-tense form by an ending 
such as -ed, and are called weak verbs. 

415. It is markworthy, that in Latin noun-verbs are not 
often of the same conjugation as root- verbs. Latin nouii- 

8 



170 



ETYMOLOGY. 



verbs answer to our weak verbs, and are mostly of the first 
conjugation, which is the Latin weak form ; while root-verbs 
are mainly of the third and second conjugation. 

Root- Verbs. 
ag-o, can-o, dic-o, ed-o, fer-o, 
gem-o, leg-o, mitt-o, pon-o, reg-o. 



6. 




Form (1 + .) 
Noun-Verbs. 




Verb. 
augur-o, 


from 


Noun. Verb. Noun. 

augur. loc-o, from locus. 


bucin-o, 
cant-o, 
decim-o, 
effren-o, 




bucina. merc-or, 
cantus. nomin-o, 
decern. popul-o, 
frenum. renov-o, 


, merx. 
, nomen. 
„ populus. 
„ novus. 


gener-o, 
hibern-o, 




genus. sign-o, 
hibernus. verber-o, 


, signum. 
„ verber. 



In Greek the form of this verb (1-f-.) is (1+*?) . 

j3«A«v-/£-«, fidhav-OQ. 

/3«p/3«po-«, /3#p/3#p-os. 

fiuaihev-oo, $a<jiKs\j-Q. 

In Cree this verb is of the form (l-\-oo), &c. 
iveegi-oo, to tent, dwell, . . . from weegee, a tent. 

Australian, (l-\-la). Mongolian, (!+/«). Bisaya, (mdng-\-l), 
ay am, dog ; mang-ayam, to hunt. 

In Kafir the form of weak verbs, or those formed from 
borrowed roots, is (3-\-sha) . — See Appleyard's Kafir Language. 

In Coptic, (£+3), as owe, space; t-owe, to give space. 

In Lapponic there are privative and additive noun-verbs of 
the form (1+.) ; as, colle, gold ; colle-htuw-am, I am ungolded, 
I am goldless ; colle-htut-am, I ungold some one, I take away 
his gold ; coll-aidofw-am, I gold myself, I get gold. 

417. Form (1 + 3). 

Eng., soot-blacken, copper-fasten. 

hat., crucifigo, {crux figo) ; navigo, (navis ago) ; belligero, 
(bellum gero) . 



ETYMOLOGY. 171 

418. Form (2 + .) 

419. English verbs of the form (2-\-en) are weak verbs, 
meaning to make or become of the quality (2) , They are of 
inceptive meaning : 

gladd-en, light-en, madd-en, redd-en, straight-en, short-en. 

In Lapponic there are verbs of the form (2+.), shapened 
from the numeral pronouns ; as, (2-j^dastam) , to three a thing, 
to divide a thing into three parts. 

In Germ, and Dutch the inceptive verb is of the same form 
(2-\-en), or of the form (ve?*-{-2-\-eri) ; and in Norse its end- 
ing is -na. 

Ger., weiss-en, whiten. Norse, ro%-na, redden, 

In Latin it is (2-\-*sc) intransitive, and (2+ic) transitive, 
as alb-esc-o, to grow white, and alb-ico, to make white ; and in 
Greek, (2+^), (2+v), &c, fxajtap-Zg-w, /x«Aax-/£-«, /tepu'-v-w, 

In Irish, (2-\-aim), beang-aim, redden. 

In Russ., (2+*^e). In Australian, (2-{-am). 

In Cree, (2-\-puth) : mithkoo-s-u, he is red j 

mithkoo-puth-u, he reddens. 
In Cree the place of adjectives is taken by adjective- verbs : 
kinwoo-s-u, he is tall. 

In Cheremiss., ishtce-m-clm, to become cold, from ishta, cold. 
In Mongolian, (3+r«) . In Bulgarian, (za-\-S) . 

420. Form (2 + 1). 
To black-ball. 

421. There are, in some languages, inchoative or inceptive 
verbs of the form (1+.), as (l+*w) in Australian: karko, 
she-oak ; karko-n-endi, to become she-oak. 

422. Form (2 + 3). 

Eng. y to white-wash. 

Latin, calefacio, clarifico, illiquefio, posse (potis esse), 
mitigo (mitis ago) ? 

423. Form (3 + .) 



172 



ETYMOLOGY. 



424. 



Causative Verbs. 



There is, in many languages, a form of verb which is shapen 
from its first form, and means not to do the action, but to 
cause the doing of it by another thing. 



'om to lie ... . 


. to lay 


. cause 


to lie. 


„ drink . . 


drench . . 


• t> 


drink. 


„ bite . . . 


bait 


' a 


bite? 


drip . . . 


drop .... 


a 


drip. 


fall . . . 


. feU 


a 


fall. 


„ rise . . . 


raise 


a 


rise. 


„ sit ... . 


set 


>} 


sit. 



The causative verbs are mostly weak, though their intransi- 
tive forms may be strong. 

There are not many English or Teutonic verbs which have 
causative forms, the place of which is taken by the intransitive 
form, as burn, which means both to burn, as lime, and make 
burn, as the lime-burner ; or by another verb, as stand, to 
make stand ; eat, feed. 

In Hindoostanee the causative form is made from the in- 
transitive one by the insertion of another breathsound or 
clipping; as, 

derrno, run ; derrono, make run. 

khono, eat; kh^lono, feed. 

In Hebrew the form called hiphil is the causative : 
b®p r , he killed; ^W 7 ?, he caused to kill. 

In Turkish the causative form of the verb is {$-\-dur) ; in 
Lapponic, (3-\-dat) ; and there is a causative form in the Cree. 

In Kafir it is (3-{-isa), as tanda, to love; tandisa, to cause 
to love. 

In Australian, {3-\-iap) . 

In Cheremissian, (3+/), asporem, ineo; portem, induce 

In Hawaii, (ho-\-3) . In Lapponic, (3^-aht) . 

In Mongolian, (3-^-gul). In Finnic, (3-\-tari). 

In Coptic, (H~3), as co, drinking; tco, drenching, watering. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



173 



Diminutive or Frequentative Verbs. 

425, Form (3+.). 

There is in some languages a form of the verb which means 
to do the action a little, or in a light mode, or with repetitions. 
Verbs of such a form are called frequentative or diminutive 
verbs. 

"We have some few of them in English, of the form (3+*/) . 



chuck chuckle. 

crack crackle. 

daze dazzle. 

draw drawl. 

drip dribble, drivel, 

fawn fondle. 

grope .< ^ *". '* , y grapple. 
Lgrapi-an) j & ^ 

hack hackle. 

hand handle. 

j°g joggle. 

mew mewl. 

nip nibble. 

prate prattle, 

pose puzzle. 

roam ramble. 



rough ruffle. 

scrape . . scrabble, scramble. 
(A.-S.) scrimm-an . shrivel. 

shove shuffle. 

sneer, snore snarl. 

spirt spirtle. 

spring sprinkle. 

stray straggle. 

start startle. 

swing swingle. 

tink tinkle. 

(^Wade. waddle. 

wad-an),J ° ' 

wrest , , -wrestle. 

wring wrangle, 

wriggle. 



In Cree the diminutive verb is of the form (S-\-asu), 

nipp-ow, he sleeps ; nipp-asu, he sleeps a little. 
In Latin it is sometimes (sub-\-S), 

subrideo, to laugh a little, smile ; 
and sometimes (3+*//o), (3+*co), 

cant-illo, sing small, chirp. nigrico, to grow blackish. 

scrib-illo, scribble. fodico, to spuddle. 

In Cheremissian, the diminutive is (3-\-al), as kasht-am, 
1 go ; kasht-al~am, I go a little. 

The frequentative is (S-\-akal), as kasht-am, I go; kasht- 
akal-am } I go often. 
In Hawaii, frequentative (3-J-3.) 

Finnic, frequentative - intransitive, (S-\-elen), as, seis-elen, 
to stand often. 

Finnic, factive - frequentative, seis-attelen, I make stand 
cften ; factive-frequentative reflective, seis-attelein. 
Lapponic, frequentative, (?>-\-azj.) 
Bulgarian, (po-\-3), I do the action (3) a little. 



174 



ETYMOLOGY. 



There are in Latin some iterative verbs of the forms 
(3+ito), (3+iculo) : 

ag-o, ag-ito. mitt-o, miss-iculo. 

curr-o, curr-ito. volvo, volnto. 

haer-eo, hses-ito. Virg. Mn. ii. 725. 

Here we should place the Latin desiderative verbs of the 
form (3-\-urio), which mean to tend to the action, or desire it • 
as, from ed-o, esum, esurio. 

parc-o, partum, parturio. 
In Lapponic, [3-\-ow) . 

And the Latin intensities of the form (3+*sso) ; as, 
facio, facesso. 

capio, capesso. 

The Bulgarian intensitive is (ra-\-3) . 
In Cree it is (ne-\-3) , (3-\-dsku) . 

We have a few of these iterative or frequentative verbs of the 
426. Form (3 + er). 



beat, 


batter. 


gleam, glimmer. 


wave, 


waver. 


chat, 


chatter. 


spit, spatter, sputter. 


wind, 


wander, 


climb, 


clamber. 


* slumber. 




wonder. 


fret, 


fritter. 


sway, swagger. 


whine, 


whimper 



427. Form (3+3). 

428. Sudden Verbs. 

The Finnic has a form for the sudden and quick doing of 
an action. The form is (3-\-ahd), (3-\-ais). 

Qu. If snock, snip, are sudden verbs from knock, nip. 

429. CONTINUATIVE VERBS, 

The Finnic has a form for the continuance of an action, (3-\-in) . 

430. Form ( 1+. ) 
Inchoative Verbs. 

Inchoative verbs of this form mean, to begin to be the 
thing (1), as if we were to say of the water f it ices/ for ' it 
freezes ;' and of steam, 'it waters,' for 'it condenses/ 

In Lapponic, the form of the inchoative verb is (3-\-akabt). 



ETYMOLOGY. 175 

431. Forms (4+.) and (5+.) 

In Lapponic are many verbs of these forms, made from 
adverbs and prepositions. 

(4+«w), (4+am), 'I here myself/ I come hither. 
1 1 off myself/ I withdraw. 
i I west myself/ I go west. 

' I late myself/ I retard myself, or make myself late. 
(5-\-astam) , ' I ronnd/ I go round. ' I over/ I go over. 
c I up/ I go up, climb. 

432. Form (5 + 1). 

We have some of these verbs of the form (be-\-\) ; as, 
In English, be-dew, be-friend, be-head, be-smut, be-tide. 

433. Forms (5+3) and (1+3). 

These are the forms of innumerable verbs in the Indo- 
Teutonic languages. They are compounded of a preposition 
and verb, or of an adverb, or some other particle of that kind, 
with a verb. 

Lat., abjicio, disjicio, describo, praetereo, circumambulo. 
Greek, tknoilcthhw, Stccfrcihhu, Kurafiuivoo, 7r«p£p%o/x«/, Tcepi(lcihhv. 

434. Form (en+3), (m+3). 

encage, engird, engrave, enlarge, enrol, 
incline, increase, induce, innate, inscribe, intend, 
Lat., in-clino. in-cresco. in-duco. in-flo. in-scribo. in-tendo. 
adsum, intersum, praesum. 

Greek, ivoL%ru, ivlexo^ai y ivvosoo, ivrpeiu. 

Noun-verbs of this form, as encage, evvosu, mean to put or 
take into the thing under the noun ; as, encage, to put into a 
cage ; ivvoeca, to take into the mind, voog. 

But verb-rooted verbs of this form mean to do the action 
onwards ; as, incresco, increase, to grow on. 

435. Form (over + 3), (under + 3). 

overtake, overbear, overcome, overflow, overrun, 
underbid, undersell, understand, underwrite 

M. Goth., vfar-fuljan, overfill. 



176 ETYMOLOGY. 

Latin, sub-eo, sub-igo, sub-scribo, 

super-addo, super-figo, super-jacio. 
Greek, v%ofiuivu, v%oypci$(a, vxfp/Wvw, uVfpypapw. 
Russ., (no^-b+S) for (under-\-3), and (nepe+3) for (over +3). 

436. Form [out + 3). 

Out, in this form, means beyond ; as, 

out-bid, out-do, out-fly, out-grow, out-run, out-stand. 

Lat., (prae + 3), (ante + 3), (super + 3). 

Greek, (u7r*p + 3), (wfp/ + 3.) 

437. Form (with + 3). 

With, in this form, means against. 

withdraw, withhold, withstand. 
Lat., (re+3), retiro, retineo, resisto. 

438. Form (be + 3). 

The A.-S. be, our by, means by or about. 

be-daub, .... to daub by or about. 

be-fall, to fall by. 

be-gird, to gird by. 

be-hold, to hold the eyes or mind by. 

be-set, to set by or about. 

be-speak, .... to speak about. 
This form is found in A.-S., Germ., Du., and M. Goth. ; as, 
A.-S., be-sprecan; Germ., be-sprechen; Du., be-spreek, be- 
speak ; M. Goth., bi-gitan, be-get. 

439. Form (fore + 3). 

Gr. (9rpo;+3), Lat. (pra+3), (pro-\-3), Russ. (npe^+3). 

forecast, forego, foreknow, forerun, foreshow. 

provideo, prsescio, prsecurro, prsemonstro. 

This form is found in A.-Sax., Norse, M. Goth., Germ., 
and Dutch; as, A.-S., fore-sceawian, foreshow ; Norse, fortelj a, 
foretell; M. Gojh., faur-rinnan, forerun ; Germ., vorher-sagen ; 
Du., voorzeggen, foresay. 

440. Form (4 + 3). 



ETYMOLOGY. 177 

441. Form (mis-\-S.) 

Mis means wrong; thence our words misbehave., miscall, 
mislead, mistake, misunderstand. 

This form is found in A.-Sax., German, Gothic, and Norse. 
A.-Sax., mis-truwian; Germ., mis-trauen, mistrust; 

Norse, misbruka, misuse; M.-Go., missa-deds, misdeed. 
Latin, neg-ligo (ne-lego), ne-scio, ab-utor. 
Greek, (7r«pa-{-3) ; ncipcMovu, mishear. 

In Cree is a form which may be reckoned with this, and 
means to do an action wrongly, or undesirably, or accidentally : 

ate-skawdyoo, he mis-elsewheres-him ; displaces him wrongly. 

thake-skawdyoo, he mispushes him ; pushes him accidentally 
or wrongly. 

442. Form (/or + 3). 

For (in A.-Sax. and Norse for, in German and Dutch ver, 
and in M. Goth, ffa,) means off. Thence 

forbid, bid off. 

forswear, swear off (from the truth) . 

forgive, give off; forlorn, lost off. 

forbear, bear off; forspent, spent off. 

forget, off-get. 

forgo, go or let off: wrongly written forego. 

forsake, offseek. 
A.-Sax., for-beodan, Ger., verbieten, Norse, forbjoda, forbid. 

Du., vergeeven, M. Go., fraletan, to forgive, give or let off. 

Lat., (per-{-3), perjurare, forswear. 

443. Form (*o + 3). 

This is an Anglo-Saxon form, in which the to (the Ger. zu, 
zer, Latin dis-, Gr. olvu-, Russ. ore,) means away, asunder ; 
thence, ' to-brake his skull/ i.e., 'broke in pieces his skull/ — 
Judges ix. 53. 

Thence, ' go to/ ' go away/ Fr., allcz vous en. 
A.-Sax., td-drifan, dispellere. Germ., zerbrcchen, disrumpere. 
Sunder would make a good substitute for the Latin dis : 
dissentio, sundcrthink. 

dispono. sundcrsct. 

8 S 



178 ETYMOLOGY. 

444. Form (un-\-S). 

This form means to undo the action, or do it the reverse 

undo, unhang, unbend, untie. 

In A.-Sax., (im+3), untigian, untie. 

Norse, (o+3), onyta, to make useless. 

M. Go., and\ , 

un r Greek, ccvn. Latin, in. 

andbindan, unbind, 
unloose, unpick, are anomalous. 

Of this form are innumerable compound verbs in Latin, 
Greek, Teutonic, Sclavonic, and other languages : as, adcedo 
(accedo), antecedo, intercedo, percurro, postpono, transeo, 
decido, excedo, prsecedo, procedo, ineo, subcedo. 

445. Being, Accidental and Proper. 

In some languages there are two verbs of being ; one for a 
proper or natural quality or state, and another for an acci- 
dental or received quality or state. 

In 'man is mortal/ the predicate is of a proper quality; 
bat in ( John is sick/ the predicate is of an accidental state. 

The Spanish has two sundry verbs for such sundry predicates : 

' El hombre es mortal/ man is mortal, (verb ser) , 

' Este hombre est a cojo/ that man is lame, (verb estar). 

Some such difference of proper and accidental being seems 
once to have been marked in the Teutonic tongues by the 
verbs represented by the Anglo-Saxon beon and wesan. 

' Godes willa is weorc, and He nsefre by'¥> werig.' 
God's will is (properly) work or operation, and He is 
(becomes accidentally) never tired. 

446. The Japanese have verb-endings or verb-particles, and 
therefore verb-forms, of lowliness and honour ; so that a man, 
saying to his betters ' I write/ and l you write/ might take 
the lowly form for himself, and the honour form for the 
other man. 



ETYMOLOGY. 1 79 



447. Person and Number. 

In most languages verbs take sundry forms as names of 
the action of the different persons aud numbers of persons ; 
as, in Latin, 

Singular Number. Plural Number. 

1st person, am-o ; I love. 1st person, am-am us, we love. 

2d „ am-as, thou lovest. 2d „ am-atis, ye love. 
3d „ am-at, he loves. 3d „ am-ant, they love. 

448. The English verb has lost some of its Anglo-Saxon 
endings for the marking of the persons, and the only persons 
that are marked by the form of our verb are the 2d person 
singular, thou, marked by the ending *st, and the 3d person 
singular, marked by *th or *s. 

I love ; thou love-st ; he, she, or it loves or loveth. 

The Cree verb marks the gender of the object : 
peyakoo-hayoo, . . he unites them, (animate), 
peyakoo-tow, .... he unites them, (inanimate). 

449. In languages which mark every person by its own 
ending of the verb, there is little need of the personal pro- 
nouns otherwise than as marks of emphatical discrimination. 

' I read and write/ would be usually given in Latin without 
the pronoun, as lego et scribo ; but ' 1 read, and thou wrotedst/ 
would be ' ego legi, tu vero scripsisti/ 

In English, from a want of tokens of the persons in the 
verbs, the pronouns are always needful. 

450. We have not in English any dual form of the verb, 
as we have not any of the noun or pronoun. 

451. In languages which have forms of the verb for all the 
persons of all the numbers, — singular, dual, aud plural, or 
singular and plural, there is a rule that the verb must agree 
with its nominative case in person aud number, or must be 
of the form that belongs to the person and number of the 
nominative case. This rule, however, which is culled the first 
concord, is sometimes broken, as in Greek a plural nomi- 
native case of the neuter gender will have a verb of the 
singular form. 



180 ETYMOLOGY. 



452. Voice. 

Actions may so come under speech, that the speech may be 
mainly of the doing of an action (B) by a nominative doer (A), 
as ' John (A) struck (B) the ball;' or the speech may be 
mainly of the taking of an action (B) by a nominative under- 
goer (A), as ' the ball (A) was struck (B) by John/ 

453. Verbs have forms or tokens, called the Active Voice, 
for the telling of the doing of an action by a nominative doer 
of it, as l John wrote;' and verbs have forms or tokens, called 
the Passive Voice, for the naming of the undergoing of an 
action by a nominative taker of it, as f the letter was written' 

In Coptic, change of breath-sound is a token of voice ; as, 
tot, persuading (active) ; tit, persuaded (passive) . 

454. The doer of an action may be also the taker of it, as 
' John struck himself/ and some tongues, such as Greek and 
Cree, have a form of the verb, called the Middle Voice, for 
the marking of the doing of an action by a nominative doer 
to himself. 

Greek, ervn-ov, I struck; 6tu7t-ojxv]v, I struck myself. 

Cree, (S-j-hissoo) , awkoo-hayoo, . . he hurts him. 

awkoo-hissoo, . . he hurts himself. 

In other languages the doing of an action by a nominative 
to himself is marked by a pronoun, or some word meaning 
-self. 

Latin, " Claudius abscondidit se" 
1 Claudius hid himself.' 

Russian, ojrb Moem-ca, he washes himself, cr being a con- 
traction of cetfl, self. 

' They sat them down and cried/ — Children in the Wood. 

The middle voice is of two kinds, the direct and indirect. 

455. The direct middle voice is that of the doing of an 
action by a nominative (A) to himself (A) ; as, f the boys (A) 
washed themselves (A) ;' '1 (A) blame myself (A) ;' ' she (A) 
warmed herself (A) / Greek, Kovo^cct. 

Kafir, (zi-\-3), zi-tanda, to love oneself. 



ETYMOLOGY. 181 

456. The indirect middle voice is that of the doing of an 
action by a nominative doer (A) to a taker (B), so as to bring 
the taker (B) under the power of (A). 

f Make thee [for thee] (A) an ark (B) of gopher wood/ 

' Thou (A) shalt not make to thyself (A) any graven image/ (B) 

' Riches (A) make themselves [for themselves] (A) wings/ (B) 

1 Lay up for yourselves (A) treasures (B) in heaven/ 

' I (A) have bought myself [for myself] (A) a horse/ (B) 

Greek, U%o[lui, 1 receive for myself. 

The simulative form of the Cree verb is a reflective one, 
as (S-\-kdsoo). 

muskowiss-u, he is strong. 

muskowisse-kasoo, he strong-makes -himself; 

pretends to be strong. 

457. Latin verbs of the passive form have often the direct 
or indirect reflective meaning of the middle voice ; as, 

Direct, Turnus vertitur, . . Turnus turns himself. 
Indirect, vultum demissa, . . having hung down the face (B) 

for herself (A) [her face] . 
faciem rnutatus, . . having changed the form (B) 

for himself (A) [his form] . 

458. Reciprocal Verbs 

Are verb-forms for actions by agents one to the other, as 
' the men help each other/ Some languages have reciprocal 
verb-endings : 

In Australian (?j-\-ana), as tand-ana, to love one another. 

In Mongolian (3-\-ltsa). 

459. An impersonal verb is one which names a proposition 
of some natural cause, or phenomenon, or power, or of some 
action ; as, ' it rains/ ' it freezes/ ' it thaws : ' that is, the 
cause which begets rain, or frost, or a thaw, is doing it. ' It 
is cold/ 'it is dark;' that is, the air, or the space within 
sight, or the day or night, is cold or dark. 

'It is God that avengeth me/ that is, the power that 
avengeth me is God. 

'It is a good thing to give thanks unto the Lord ;' that is, 
the action ' to give thanks unto the Lord ' is a good thing. 



1 82 ETYMOLOGY. 



460. PARTICIPLES. 



A participle is a part of the verb which is in kind both a 
verb and an adjective, as the word singing in the sentence 
'My singing bird is dead;' or the word broken in the propo- 
sition ' They poured water into a broken cistern/ 

461. There are in English two participles, the active or 
imperfect, and passive or perfect. 

462. The active or neuter participle ends in -ing ; as, a 
i loving child/ a ' singing bird/ 

463. The participle of the form (3-\-ing) should not be con- 
founded with the noun of the same form. In the sentence 
' I like to hear singing,' the word singing is a noun, though it 
is of the same form as the participle singing in the expression 
' I have a singing bird/ 

In Anglo-Saxon, as well as in German and other Teu- 
tonic tongues, the participle and verbal noun have different 
endings, as the noun in Anglo-Saxon is (3-\-ung) or (3-\-ing), 
and the participle is {3-\-end) ; and the expression, ' I was 
hunting yesterday/ is " Ic wses on huntunge gyrstan dseg/' 
f I was on or in hunting yesterday/ — JElfric's Colloquy. 

This use of on or at coincides with that of on or at in the 
expression ' David fell on sleep/ (Acts xiii. 36) ; for which 
we should say now f David fell a' sleep/ i.e., on or into sleep. 

464. The (3-\-ing) participle is in German (3 -{-end) ; 
A. -Sax., (3\-\-ende) ; Gothic, (3-\-ands) ; Norse, (3-\-andi) ; 
Swedish, (3 \-ande). 

465. The passive participle is in German (ge-\-3-\-en), 
(ge+S+et)-, A.-Sax., (3+en), {3+ed, ode), (ge+3+en), 
(ge+3+ed) ; Norse, (3+*/); Swedish, (3+en), (3+et). 

466. In Latin and Greek there are participles of other 
kinds, such as the Latin future participle (3-\-turus), and the 
Greek one (3+<r«v), meaning c going to do the action;' and 
the gerund participle (3-\-*ndus), meaning 'that ought, or is, 
to undergo or do the action/ 



ETYMOLOGY. 183 

467. Although the perfect participle (S-\-ed) of the English 
weak verb ends in the type-language in -ed, yet the e is not 
usually sounded in common speech, but after d or its kins- 
letter t, as commanded, delighted, intruded, requited. 

called is pronounced calFd. stabbed is pronounced stab'd. 

loved „ lov'd. 

marred . , . „ rnar'd. 

planned . . . „ plan'd. 

raised . . . . „ raised. 

468. When the last consonant of the verb is rough, the d 
becomes its rough kins-letter t (Art. 127) in sound, and some- 
times in spelling : 

laugh'd, laught. stopped, stopt. crack' d, crackt. 
quaff 'd, quaft. hitch'd, hitcht. passed, past. 

469. The perfect participle of most besides the weak verbs 
are, or were in the older form of the language, of the form 
(3-\-en) ; as, fall, fall-en ; break, brok-en. 

The e is often omitted in common speech, and in spelling ; as, 



layed 


has become laid. 


payed 


. . . . „ paid. 


sayed 


. . . . „ said. 



blown for 


bio wen. 


lain . for 


. layen. 


sown for 


so wen. 


done . „ 


doen. 


mown „ 


. mowen. 


sworn „ 


. sworen. 


drawn „ 


drawen. 


sawn . „ 


. sawen. 


torn . „ . 


toren. 


flown . „ 


flowen. 


seen . „ 


. see-en. 


worn . „ . 


worcn. 


gone . „ 


. goen. 


shorn „ 


. shoren. 


falln . „ 


fallen. 


grown „ 


growen. 


shown „ 


. showen. 


brokn „ 


broken . 


known „ . 


knowen. 


slain . „ 


. slayen. 







Sometimes the n clipping is dropt ; as, ago for agonc, broke 
for broken, writ for written. 

470. The passive or perfect participle is of the form (3), 
(S-\-en), (3-\-ed) ; as, a stung hand, a broken heart, baked 
meats. 

471. We have an aorist participle compounded of the two ; 
as, ' having delivered his message, he departed:' and thr 
Finnic has a past active participle, with a power much like that 
of the Greek aorist active participle TU\J/a;. 

The Cree language has special clippings for man-actions, 
to mark whether they are done by the mouth, h;md arm, 
leg, &c. 



184 ETYMOLOGY. 



472. NEGATIVE VERBS. 

Some languages have negative forms of verbs to betoken 
the not-ness of an action or predicate. In Latin and Anglo- 
Saxon we find a few shapen of an adverb ne or non, ' not/ 
blended with the verb, as nolo, nonvolo; A.-Saxon, nyllan, 
ne wyllan ; naes, ne waes. 

In Chippeway the form of the negative verb is (3+se), 
(8+»). 

In Greenlandish, (3-\-'ngit). 

In Japanese, present tense, (3-|-enui), (3-f-ezui) ; past tense, 
(3-\-nanda), &c. 

In Kafir, (nga-\-3-\-i) , as, uku-teta, to speak; uku-nga-tet-i, 
not to speak. 

In Turkish, (™) sdpmak, to err ; sap-ma-mak, not to err. 

473. TENSE. 

Tense (in French temps, and in Latin tempus,) means time. 
The tense of an action or predicate is its time. 

474. The tense of a predicate is betokened in sundry 
languages either by forms of the verbs or tense-forms, as 
1 1 sing/ 'I sang/ 'I love/ 'I loved ;' or by the verb or its 
participle with helping verbs, or other tense-tokens (tense- 
formulas), as f I shall love/ 'I shall have seen/ 'I have 
found/ ' I had written/ 

475. The doctrine of tense is nearly as unsettled as that of 
case, since the time of an action and the time-form of its 
verb are often taken loosely one for the other. 

476. Some grammarians will hold that a tense is only a 
tense -form of the verb, and that since the formula 'have 
spoken/ in the sentence ' I have spoken/ is made up of have 
and spoken, it is no tense of the verb i speak / and that the 
verb ' to speak ' has only two tenses, the present speak, and 
past spoke. But if this were allowed, it would follow that 
'locutus sum' is no tense of f loquor/ and that ' Pai parle* 
is no tense of 'parler/ a consequence which would not be 
received. 

Yet if a man were to say of the same action, first in Latin, 
' legeram librum/ then in French, ( Pavais lu le livre/ and 



ETYMOLOGY. 185 

lastly in English, c I had read the book/ it is clear he would 
be speaking of the same time (tense) in all three languages, 
though he might betoken it in Latin by a tense-shape of the 
verb, and in the other tongues by helping-verbs and parti- 
ciples ; and therefore if tense is time, it would be wrong to 
hold that French and English, which betoken the same time 
as leg er am , had not the tense of it. 

It seems best, therefore, to take tense as the relative time 
of a predicate, and to call the time-shapes of the verb, as 'legi, 
legeram/ time-forms, or tense-forms; and the tense-tokens, 
composed of the verb or participle with helping- verbs, time- 
formula, or tense -formula ; as, ' I shall love/ ' I have loved/ 
1 1 shall have spoken/ ' I had spoken/ 

Murray says that " tense is the distinction of time, and is 
made to consist (in English) of six variations ;" but if he 
means by ' variations of tense ' time-forms of the verb, six are 
more than we have ; and if he takes time-formulae for vari- 
ations of tense, six are less than those known in English, 
which is very rich in tense -formulae. 

As the logical relations of things are innumerable, so are 
those of the times of actions, and therefore we shall not 
inquire how many or what they all may be, as taken singly ; 
but, inasmuch as the nations of the earth have classed them 
in their languages, as they have classed in their languages the 
logical relations of things ; and inasmuch as the tense-forms 
or tense -f or mulse of the verbs are tokens of the classes into 
which they have been formed ; so it seems enough to take for 
the tenses of verbs those which we find marked by tense- 
forms and tense -formulae of known tongues ; and English is 
so rich of tense-formulae, that there are but few in other 
tongues for each of which it has not one of its own. 

477. Present Tense. 

The present tense is the time of the uttering of a predicate ; 
as, f I love/ or ( Iam loving/ that is, I love, or am loving, 
while I utter the predicate ( I love/ or ' I am loving/ 

478. The present tense in English is of two kinds, the 
present indefinite, as ' I love/ and the present definite, as ' I am 
loving/ 

479. The present indefinite form betokens the time of a 
predicate of the present time, and of much more than the 



186 ETYMOLOGY. 

present time, whether by repetition or continuation, as ( I walk/ 
( he sells books/ ( she likes knitting/ now and at other times, 
from time to time, or always, as by practice, by trade, or by 
disposition. 

480. The present definite tense-formula is rightly composed 
of the verb to be, a preposition on or in, and the noun (S-\-ing), 
as f I am on or in loving/ It betokens the time of a predi- 
cate of the present time, and of little more than the present 
time, as f I am walking'' (now), 'he is selling books ' (now), 
' she is sewing ' (now) . 

The present actual tense-formula sometimes takes a place 
which may seem that of the present indefinite. 

One may say with the present indefinite formula, ' I bathe/ 
meaning habitually; he may say with the present actual 
formula, while he is in the water, ' I am bathing/ or, he may 
say at a watering-place, but not in the water, ' I am bathing 
for a short time under medical direction/ which is the present 
actual formula taken rather narrower than the present inde- 
finite for an action of little more than the present time. 

The Latin and Greek, with their daughter tongues, have 
only one tense-form for these two formulae; but the Mongolian, 
Irish, and Hindoostanee have both of them. 

481. Present Indefinite. Present Actual. 

Irish, glannan pe, f he cleanses/ lab'paim, f I am speaking/ 
Hind., mein morto, ' I strike/ mein morto hum, 'I am 

striking/ 

482. Present Indefinite. 

Active Voice. 

1. Hove (3). 1. we love (3). 

2. thou (3+est). 2. ye or you (3). 

3. he, she, or it (3-f s) or {3+eth). 3. they (3). 

The ending -s is that of the actual language ; (-th) is found 
in the Bible, and was that of the Anglo-Saxon and older 
English : -th or J? was the Anglo-Saxon ending of all the 
persons in the plural number. 

Substantive Verb, To Be. 
Indefinite and Definite. 

1. I am. we are. 

2. thou art. ye or you are. 

3. he, she or it is. they are. 



etymology. 187 

483. Present Definite. 

1. I am (3-\-ing). we are (3+ing). 

2. thou art (3-\-ing). ye or you are (3-{-ing). 

3. he, she, or it is (3-\-ing) . they are (3-\-ing) . 

Passive Voice. 
Indefinite and Definite. 

The passive voice is formed of the substantive verb To Be, 
and a passive participle. 
English participles are of three forms, (3), (3-\-eri), and (3+ed) . 
(3) is the root-participle, as stung. 
(3+en) is the strong participle, as wov-en. 
(3+ed) is the weak participle, as stoned. 

1. lam (3), (3+en), (3+ed). we are (3), (3+en), (3+ed). 

2. thou art - - - ye or you are - - - 

3. he, she, or it - - - they are - - - 

This formula is sometimes taken for a past time, and some- 
times for a present one. The true time of the proposition 
1 the murderer is hanged,' may be the perfect present, as it 
may mean 'has been hanged/ but is not now in the state 
hanging ; while the same formula c the hat is hung on the peg/ 
may be one of the present time, and may mean is now in the 
state hung. 
In Cree these two meanings are given by two tense-forms j as, 

wckoo-t-ayoo it is hung, (and now hanging). 

u ckoo-ch-egat-ayoo . . it is hung, (has been hung) . 

484. Past Tense. 

The past tense is that of a predicate of a time before that 
of the uttering of it. 

There are two past-tense formula?, — the past indefinite, and 
the past definite. 

Past Indefinite. 

1. I bound (3), or loved (3+ed). we (3) (3+cd). 

2. thou (3+est), (3+edst). ye or you - - 

3. he, she, or it (3), (3+ed). they - - 

Substantive Verb, To Be. 

1. I was. wc were. 

2. thou wast. ye or you were. 

3. he, she, or it was. they were. 



188 etymology. 

Past Definite. 

1. I was (3-f-m#). we were {§-\-ing). 

2. thou wast - ye or you were - 

3. he, she, or it was - they were - 

Indefinite. 

Passive Voice. 

1. I was (3), or (3+m), or (3+ed). we were - - - 

2. thou wast - - - ye or you were - - 

3. he, she, or it was - - - they were - - - 

Definite. 

1. I was (being), (3), (3-f-c»), (S-\-ed). we were - - - 

2. thou wast ye or you were- - - 

3. he, she or it was - - - they were 

Our indefinite tense-form ' I bound/ or ' loved/ is used for 
two time-modes of a predicate, — the single (done once), and 
iterative (done many times in succession) ; as, f he struck 
(once)/ or 'he struck (many times).' Under the sentence 
' I wrote to my father yesterday/ I wrote once. Under the 
sentence l when I was in London, I wrote to my father once a 
week/ I wrote many times in succession. So, ' John played 
cricket yesterday/ or ( Jane sold me some apples this morning/ 
means that John played and Jane sold once; while ' John 
formerly played cricket/ or ' Jane once sold apples at a stall/ 
means that John played and Jane sold many times. 

The past indefinite single, and the past indefinite iterative, 
are betokened in many languages by two tense-forms or tense- 
formulae ; and though both of them are often given in English 
under the same tense-form, yet the iterative is sometimes 
marked by its own formula ; as, { John used to play/ ' Jane 
used to sell/ ' he kept striking/ 

All verbs, however, are not iterative, or their actions are not 
such as are done several times in succession ; as, to live, to die. 
We should not want to say a man keeps living or dying, though 
a boy may keep leaping or falling, or may leap or fall many 
times. But actions that are not iterative may yet be con- 
tinuative, and as the iteration of an action is a kind of 
continuation of it, so, in some languages, the iteration and 
continuation of an action are betokened by the same tense- 
form or tense-formulae, and of the three tenses : 



ETYMOLOGY. 189 

A, the indefinite single, ' I struck once/ 

B, the indefinite iterative, f I struck often, kept striking, 
or used to strike/ 

C, the definite continuative, ' I was striking/ 

Some languages may include A and B under one tense- 
form ; others may give B and C, and others A and C under 
the same form. 

Thus, in Latin B and C are betokened by the praeter-im- 
perfect tense-form, and A by the prseter-perfect. 

The Greek betokens B and C by the imperfect, and A by 
the aorist tense-form. 

So David's Modern Greek Grammar says, "If I advise a 
person to practise writing for the purpose of acquiring a good 
hand, I say, ypaps fob vol fxcc^g xuXa,, which means write 
often, repeat the act of writing, till you have learnt to write 
well. If I request a person to write to one of his friends, I 
say, ypoi^/e tov (piXov <rov, .and mean that he should write 
once, and not repeatedly." 

The imperfect tense has always reference to continued action, 
or a repetition of action. 

The aorist, in correct writing, has always reference to action 
completed at once, and never continued or repeated. 

The Irish seems to range B under one tense-form, and 
A and C under another ; as, 

glanar .... I cleansed, or was cleansing, 
jlanainn . . 1 used to cleanse. 

The Russian, Illyric, and other Sclavonic languages have 
sundry tense-forms for A and B, if not for C, and indeed 
sundry forms of the verb for one-time actions, and many- 
time actions. They betoken A by what is called the scmel- 
factive branch of the verb, and answers to the Greek aorist ; as, 
ya prcmule 
a mgoKjxh .... I touched once. 

It gives B by the iterative branch of the verb ; as, 
ya piergJvalS 
h lnporiir.a^-b .... I touched often. 

The Persian, and Ilindoostanec, and Japanese mark A and C 
by sundry tense-forms. 



1 90 ETYMOLOGY. 

485. Present Perfect Tense. 

The present perfect tense of a predicate is that of a pre- 
dicate wholly ended at the time of the telling of it j as, ' I have 
written/ ' I have been writing/ 

The present perfect tense is either indefinite or definite. 

Present Perfect Indefinite. 

Active Voice. 

1. I have (3), (3+erc), (3+ed). we have 

2. thou hast ye or yon have - - - 

3. he, she, or it has or hath they have - - - 

Neuter Verb To Be. 

1 . I have (been) . we have been. 

2. thou hast - ye or you have - 

3. he, she, or it has or hath - they have - 

Present Perfect Definite. 

1. I have (been S-\-ing) . we have - - 

2. thou hast - - ye or you have - - 

3. he, she, or it has or hath - - they have - - 

Passive Voice. 

1. I have (been 3), (3+e»), {2>-\-ed). we have - - - - 

2. thou hast - - - - ye or you have 

3. he, she, or it has or hath they have - - - - 

The tense-form for this tense in Greek is markworthy, 
inasmuch as it is shapen with a repetition of the first clipping 
of the root, or of a kindred one; as, tuxt-oo, 'I strike ;' 
T£-Tu<p-x, c I have struck/ And we find traces of the same 
form in Latin, as morde-o, ' I bite ;' mo-mord-i, ' I have bitten/ 



486. Past Perfect Tense. 

The past perfect tense of a predicate is the time of a pre- 
dicate ended at the time of another predicate of past time; 
as, ' I had dined when my friend came ; ' 'I had said my 
lesson before the clock struck twelve/ 

The past perfect tense is either indefinite or definite. 



ETYMOLOGY 191 



Indefinite. 



1. I had (3), {3+en), (S+ed). we had 

2. thou hadst - - - ye or you had - - - 

3. he, she, or it had - - - they had - - - 

Neuter Verb To Be. 

1. I had (been). we had (been). 

2. thou hadst - ye or you had - 

3. he, she, or it had - they had - 

Definite. 

1. I had (been S-\-ing). we had - - 

2. thou hadst - - ye or you had - - 

3. he, she, or it had - - they had - - 

Passive Voice. 

1. I had (been 3), (3+en), (3+ed). we had * 

2. thou hadst - - - - ye or you had 

3. he, she, or it had - - - - they had - - - - 

The perfect participle> which comes so often into the tense- 
formulae, is of passive or neuter meaning. Murray fancies 
that the participle of the present perfect tense, ' he has in- 
structed me/ has an active sense : the formula may have an 
active sense, but the participle itself has a passive one. 

The formula ' he has printed the book/ means ' he has the 
book (in the state) printed/ as in German, ' er hat das buch 
gedruckt/ and ' I have loved my brother/ is 'I have or bold 
my brother loved/ 

So in Modern Greek : 

rot, Tcevovix tcc \%m rWA^ypiiva, 
' The melons which I hold (have) chosen/ 

The Bisaya, which is markworthy for the formation of 
words by the insetting of breathsounds, has a future tense- 
form, !£^ made by the insetting of um in the root, as from 
lacat, ( to go/ present, comes the future l-um-acat. 

487. Future Tense. 

The future tense is the time of a future predicate ; as, \ J 
shall dine early to-day/ 

The future tense may be indefinite or definite. 



192 etymology. 

Indefinite. 

Active Voice. 

1. I shall or will (3). we shall or will (3). 

2. thou shalt or wilt (3) . ye or you shall or will (3) . 

3. he, she, or it shall or will (3) . they shall or will (3). 

Cheremissian, liam jyas ... I am to drink. 

Neuter Verb To Be. 

1. I shall or will (be). we shall or will (be) 

2. thou shalt or wilt - ye or you shall or will - 

3. he, she, or it shall or will - they shall or will - 

Definite. 

1. I shall or will (be 3-\-ing). we shall or will - - 

2. thou shalt or wilt - - ye or you shall or will - - 

3. he, she, or it shall or will - - they shall or will - - 

Passive Voice. 

1. I shall or will (be 3) , (3-\-en) , 3-\-ed) . we shall or will - - - 

2. thou shalt or wilt - - - ye or you shall or will 

3. he, she, or it shall or will - - - they shall or will - - - 

488. The helping- verb shall, which comes into the formula 
for the future tenses, is the indefinite tense of the Anglo- 
Saxon verb, sceal-an, to owe : and since a future action is yet 
undone, and therefore owed, so ' I shall fast/ is in Anglo- 
Saxon ' ic sceal fsestan/ ' I owe to feest/ or ' I shall to fast/ 
which, by ellipsis of to, becomes ' I shall fast/ The past tense 
of sceal-an, to owe, is ' sceold,' our helping- verb should, which 
means ' I owed/ It appears, therefore, that in the formula 
(I shall 3), 3 is the infinitive mood of the verb. 

The helping- verb will is the present indefinite tense of the 
Anglo-Saxon verb wyllan, 'to will/ the past tense of which is 
wold, our helping-verb ivould, and means ' I willed/ 

Since will is from wyllan, ' to will/ and shall is from 
sceal-an, 'to owe/ and a verb with the helping-verb will 
means that the predicate will happen because willed, and a 
verb with the helping- verb shall means that the predicate 
will happen because owed, and since one cannot rule the wills 



ETYMOLOGY. 193 

of others, therefore shall is used of any other person than 
the first, when the action will happen from the will of the first, 
as ' thou shalt go/ or ' he, or you, or they shall go/ meaning 
with my will ; and will is used of any other person than the 
first, only for a predicate that will happen not from the will 
of the first person, as ' thou wilt go/ or ' he, or you, or they 
will go/ 

489. Future Perfect Tense. 

The future perfect tense is that of a predicate to be ended 
at the time of another predicate ; as, ' he will have said his 
lesson when school goes out/ 

The future perfect tense is indefinite or definite. 

Indefinite. 

Active Voice. 

1. 1 shall have (3), (3+m),or (3+ed). we shall - - - 

2. thou shalt ye or you shall 

3. he, she, or it shall - - - they shall - - - 

Neuter Verb To Be. 

1 . I shall (have been) . we shall (have been) 

2. thou shalt - - ye or you shall - - 

3. he, she, or it shall - - they shall - - 

Definite. 

1. I shall (have been Z-\-ing). we shall - - - 

2. thou shalt - - - ye or you shall - - 

3. he, she, or it shall - - - they shall - - - 

Passive Voice. 

1. I shall (havebeen3),(3+e?»),or(3+ed). we shall 

2. thou shalt - - - ye or you shall -- - 

3. he, she, or it shall - - - they shall - - - 

The Irish has a relative form of the verb in the present and 
future tenses of the indicative mood ; as, ceilib- re, ' he con- 
ceals/ a ceileajv, 'who conceals/ This form of the verb is 
taken for the narrative tense. 

9 



194 ETYMOLOGY. 

490. Do, Did. 

The helping-verb do, with its past tense did, is used to 
help verbs : 

1st. When the verb or its tense is emphatical ; as, ' I do 
hope he will come;' ' I did esteem him once/ 

2nd. In negations and forbiddings, or with not ; as, e I do 
not think so;' ' I did not believe it;' * do not believe it.' 

3rd. In questions ; as, ' do you think so ? ' c did you 
believe it?' 

4th. Instead of a foregiven verb or predicate ; as, ' you do 
not believe it, but I do, 3 instead of c I believe it/ ' Who 
called me V ' I did/ instead of ' I called you. 3 



The following Table shows the tense-forms that are found 
in some few languages. Every asterisk stands for a tense- 
form, and shows that the language has a form for the tense 
against which it stands. 



•anbsBg 



'J¥«3 



ETYMOLOGY. 



195 



'ireqo2uoj*i 



•asatreduf 



•33IQ 



•oiq&iy 



•^stjob 



\Ai.3.iq3]J 



•?suob 



'331113} 

-soopaijj 



TIBTSI3J 



-qsp[itvi 



TrerssTrg; 



■qsiq 



•qsp^ 



•qsip3jttS 



•3sjo\; 



•UBTIU39 



•UOXBg-'V 



•qousjj 



•383Tl3tl^I0J 



•qanreds 



•UBipni 



•3133J0 



m}vq 






• 2 


2 * 


2 


' 


2 


O 


r Definite 
(. Indefini 


I 1 






r Indefini 
( Definite 


f Indefini 

(. Definite 


■wipij 


•juiMj 




JtVJ 


JUUUJ 


P>f<:i 



196 ETYMOLOGY. 



491. MOOD. 

Mood is the mode in which the happening of a predicate is 
taken by the first person of a sentence. 

492. One may take the happening of a predicate or action 
in sundry modes, such as ' sure or unsure/ or { willed or un- 
willed/ ' possible or impossible/ or with or without an agent 
or patient ; and there are in sundry languages various mood- 
forms or mood-formulse of verbs to betoken these moods, 

493. The moods which are mostly so reckoned in languages 
are those which we call the infinitive, the indicative, the sub- 
junctive, the imperative, the potential, and the optative. 

494. Moods are betokened in two ways: 1st, by one-mood 
forms; as, Eng. ' I love;' Lat., 'regerem/ 2nd, by two- 
mood formulae; as, Eng., 'I can love;' Lat., ' nolo-scribere/ 

495. Infinitive Mood. 

The infinitive mood is that of an action taken by the 
first person, as without any noun for a doer or taker of it ; 
as, ' to love/ ' to walk/ ' to be loved/ or f to rise early is 
healthy/ 

The form of the infinitive mood is, in most languages, (3-J-.) 

In many of the Indo-Teutonic tongues it is (3+*w) . 

Greek, present tense (3+f/v) ; M. Gothic and A.-Sax., 
(3-{-<m) ; Germ, and Du., (3+m) ; Persian, (3-\-an) ; Hin- 
doostanee, (3-f-raa). 

In English the form of the infinitive mood is (to-J-3), 
(to be S-\-ing), (to be 3), or (3+ew), or (3+ed). 

* In Cree and in Magyar a free objectless verb has a form of 
its own, as it sometimes has in the West of England ; as, { I 
want you to sew up this linen for me. Can you sewy V 

So in Magyar, ' I write in general/ is Irek ; but ( I write 
(a letter)/ is Irdm. 

Ths infinitive mood has sundry tenses : the present, as 
( to love/ ' to be loving ; ' and the past perfect, as ' to have 
loved/ ' to have been loved/ 



ETYMOLOGY. 197 

Present Indefinite. 

In Greek tvtts /v, .... to strike indefinitely. 

Future tu-vJ/c/v, to be going to strike. 

Aorist rv-^ai, to strike once. 

Present Perfect . . . reTvpivcu, ... to have struck. 

The Cheremissian has an infinitive form for the future 

time. 

496. Indicative Mood. 

The indicative mood is that of a predicate which is worded 
for sure by the first person; as, 'I learn/ 'thou heardest/ 
'he has not read/ 'we had smitten/ 'you will not drink/ 
' they will have ridden/ 

The tense-forms of the indicative mood have been already 
given. 

497. Imperative Mood. 

The imperative mood is that of a predicate which is worded 
as to take place from the will of the first person, but by 
another ; as, ' Go to the ant, thou sluggard. ' ' Hear ye my 
words/ 

There is not any mood-form for the past tense of the 
imperative mood, as it is the mood of a predicate worded as 
yet to take place ; and there is not any mood-form for the 
first person singular of the imperative, as it is the mood of a 
predicate worded as to take place from the will of the first 
person, but by another. 

Active Voice. 
1. (3) we, or let us (3). 

2. (3) thou, or do thou (3). (3) ye, or do ye (3). 

3. (3) he, or let him (3). (3) they, or let them (3). 

Neuter Verb To Be % 
1. be we, or let us be. 

2. be thou, or do thou be. be ye, or do ye be. 

3. be he, or let him be. be they, or let them be. 

Passive Voice. 
1. be we, or let us be - - - 

2. be thou, or do thou be, 1 , n , 

(3), (i+ed), (3-N»), J b ° n ° r d ° y ° b ° " * ■ 

3. be he, or let him be - - - be thev, or let them be - - - 



198 ETYMOLOGY. 

The Greek, Russian, and Cree have an imperative mood-form 
for the present indefinite and aorist tenses ; and the Hindoo- 
stanee has a respectful imperative mood-form, which answers to 
such expressions as ' Have the kindness to do the action/ (3) . 
f Will you be pleased, or condescend, to do the action ' (3) ? 

In English, Latin, and some other languages, the place of 
the respectful imperative mood-form is taken by the future 
tense formula of the indicative mood ; as, 

' You will do that business for me/ 
' Mea negotia videbis/ — Cicero (Ep. Fam.), vii. 20. 
1 You will look after my business/ for ' look after/ &c. 
Greek, v^eTg $e t£v ahXuv lilctwuXoi htrecbe. — Plat. Conviv. 

Our imperative mood formula, ' let him (her, it, us, them,) 
love/ is truly a two-mood formula, ' let or allow him, &c. to 
love / and the verb let is of a true imperative form, and of the 
second person ; and the French formula ' *qu'il aime/ ' *qu ; ils 
aiment/ is the apodosis of a conditional mood formula (1 fast, 
2 loose) without its protasis; some such one as f je veux/ 
' je veux qu'il aime/ 

498. Subjunctive Mood and Conditional Mood. 

The subjunctive or afterhanging mood is that of a predicate 
worded as sure or unsure, with another for its sure or unsure 
consequence ; as, ( If ye ask, ye shall or may receive/ 

The leading predicate is called the protasis, and the after- 
hanging one the apodosis. 

In some of the patterns given hereafter, the protasis is betokened by 
the figure (1), and the apodosis by the figure (2). 

499. The conditional or forecasting mood is that of a pre- 
dicate worded as sure, with another for its forecast end; as, 
' I have sent Naaman to thee — that thou mightest heal him 
of his leprosy/ 

500. Since the subjunctive and conditional moods are always 
moods of two predicates, — and yet two predicates do not always 
involve either the subjunctive or conditional mood, — it is not 
easy to discriminate them from each other; and from the 
indicative mood, without a clear understanding of the sundry 
kinds of connection of two predicates. 

Two predicates may be associated in speech with a free 
connection where they are not a protasis and apodosis inas- 



ETYMOLOGY. 199 

much as one does not lead the other as its consequence or end, 
and so they do not, of need, involve either the subjunctive or 
conditional mood ; as, f I have sold one of my horses, and have 
lent the other. - ' ' John came to see me, but I was not at home/ 
This connection, therefore, may henceforth be dismissed from 
our minds. 

501. Two predicates may be associated with a leading con- 
nection, so that one — the apodosis — may be worded as the 
consequence of the other, the protasis; as, f If ye ask, ye 
shall receive/ ' They asked that they might receive/ ' When 
they asked, they received/ 

Now in leading connection, 1st, both the protasis and 

apodosis may be worded as sure ; as, 

when ye ask or asked, then ye receive or received ; 

since ye ask or asked (1), therefore ye receive or received (2); 

because. ") , C therefore. ~1 

,. 7 ' ye ask or » I ye receive or 

"Jf' j iked(l), { »%*> ) received (2). 

In this case the protasis and apodosis are both in the 
indicative mood. 

502. 2nd, The protasis may be worded as unsure, with the 
apodosis for its sure or unsure end ; as, 

if ye ask (1), ye shall (or may) receive (2). 

if ye ask not (1), ye shall not (or may not) receive (2). 
unless ye ask (1), ye shall not receive (2). 
until ye ask (1), ye shall not receive (2). 
In this case the protasis is in the unsure subjunctive mood, 
or what is usually called the subjunctive mood. 

503. 3rd, The protasis may be worded as sure or unsure, 
with the apodosis for its forecast, though not sure end ; as, 

( We ask (1), that we may receive' (2). 
'Watch and pray (1), that ye enter not into temptation' (2). 
f Judge not (1), that ye be not judged' (2). 
'Pray for them which dcspitefully use you and persecute 
you (1), that ye may be the children of your Father, which 
is in heaven' (2). 

' I hope (1) that my mother is in health' (2). 

'I could wish (1) that he would answer me/ 

' I should think (1) that he would do it.' 
In this case the apodosis is in the conditional mood. 



200 ETYMOLOGY. 

504. The protasis may be worded as with an imsureness of 
its time or mode, while its sureness, at some time or in some 
mode, may be understood ; as, 

' Whenever I die (1), then lay my bones by his bones' (2). 
1 Wherever he goes (1), thither I will follow him' (2). 

Here, if the occurrence of the protasis be sure, while its 
time or mode is unsure, it may be worded either in the indi- 
cative or subjunctive mood ; though a very little unsureness 
of its actuality at any time, will mostly lead the first person to 
cast it into the subjunctive mood formula ; as, 

'Whenever ye may ask (1) (if ye do ask), ye shall receive' (2) . 

( However he may strive (1) (if he do strive), he will fail' (2) . 

'When ye pray (1) (if ye do pray), ye shall say,' &c. (2). 

otuv npo<rev%vi7be (1), Ksyere (2). 

So in Latin often, and in other languages sometimes, 
when the apodosis of the conditional mood has already become 
the actual and therefore sure consequence of the protasis, it is 
still worded in the afterhanging mood formula instead of the 
indicative. 

Jane protected her flowers (1), so that they were not frost- 
bitten (2), or that they might not be frost-bitten (2). 

505. The Hypothetical Subjunctive Mood. 

4th, A protasis may be worded as hypothetically true when 
it is not so, with the apodosis for its sure or unsure end ; as, 

' (If) ye were (as ye are not) of this world (1), then the 
world would, or might, love you ' (2) . 

' (If ) I were not (as I am) Alexander (1), then I would be 
Diogenes' (2). 

1 (If) I had not come (1), (as I have,) then they had not 
had sin ' (2) . 

f (If) ye had asked (1), (as ye have not,) then ye should or 
might have received ' (2) . 

Here the protasis is in the hypothetical subjunctive mood. 

506. 5th, The protasis may be worded as sure or unsure 
with the apodosis hypothetically affirmative or negative, when 
it is not so ; as, 

' I wish (1) that I were (2) (as I am not) at home.' 
I could wish (1) that he were (as he is not) a better boy' (2) . 
Here the apodosis is in the hypothetical subjunctive mood, 
or the optative mood. 



ETYMOLOGY. 20] 

507. The protasis may be affirmative while the apodosis is 
negative ; or, the protasis may be negative with the apodosis 
affirmative; as, 

Though or when ye asked (1), yet then ye did not receive (2) . 

Though or when ye asked not (1), yet then ye received (2). 

Though ye ask (1), yet ye shall not receive (2). 

When ye ask not (1), then ye shall receive (2). 

Ye asked not (1), that ye might receive (2). 

Ye asked (1), that ye might not receive (2). 

(If) ye had asked (1), ye should not have received (2). 

(If) ye had not asked (1), ye should have received (2). 

[ wish (1) that you had not asked (2). 

I wish not (1) that you had asked (2). 

508. The negative form of a protasis with an affirmative 
apodosis, or the affirmative form of a protasis with a negative 
apodosis, does not affect the mood of either of them ; as, 
although an apodosis may not be taken in its negative form 
as the end of an affirmative protasis, and may not be taken in 
its affirmative form as the end of a negative protasis, yet, if 
the apodosis is such as may be taken for the end of a protasis 
of its own form, affirmative or negative, then their difference 
of form does not affect their moods. 

509. Thence it appears that there are five mood-cases of the 
moods of two predicates, or of the subjunctive mood : 

1st. *(p) sure and . . (a) sure. 

2nd. (p) unsure „ . . (a) sure or unsure. 

3rd. (p) sure or unsure . . „ . . (a) unsure. 

4th. (p) hypothetical ... „ . . (a) sure or unsure. 

5th. (p) sure or unsure . . „ . . (a) hypothetical. 

Or, (1) fast and . . (2) fast. 

(1) loose „ . . (2) fast or loose. 

(1) fast or loose „ . . (2) loose. 

(1) hypothetical „ . . (2) fast or loose. 

(1) fast or loose „ . . (2) hypothetical. 

510. (1) FAST. (2) FAST. 
(p) SURE. (a) SURE. 

When you asked (1), you received (2). 
When any man asked (1), he received (2). 

* (p) and (a) stand for protasis and apodosis. 

9§ 



202 ETYMOLOGY. 

When there is any looseness of time, mode, or subject of 
the protasis, it is often cast into the subjunctive mood-form ; as, 
Whenever you asked (or might have asked), you received. 
However you asked (or might ask), you received. 
Whoever asked (or might ask), he received. 

This is the case in Latin ; as, 

1 Ciim amarem (1), eram miser ' (2), 

( Whenever I loved (as I often did) , I was wretched/ 
" Quum receptum in gratiam summo studio defenderim (for 
defendi), hunc afflictum violare non debeo." — Cicero. 

511. (1) LOOSE. (2) FAST OT LOOSE. 

(p) UNSURE. (a) SUltE OT UNSURE. 

(If) thy right hand offend thee (1), then cut it off (2). 
(If) ye ask (1), then ye shall receive (2). 
(Though) ye may ask (1), yet ye may not receive (2). 
(If) ye ask (1), then ye may receive (2). 

Present Tense Indefinite. 

Active Voice. 

1. if I love. if we love. 

2. if thou love. if ye or you love. 

3. if he, she, or it love. if they love. 

Neuter Verb To Be. 

1. if I (be). if we (be). 

2. if thou - if ye or you - 

3. if he, she, or it - if they - 

Definite. 

1. if I (be S-\-ing). if we (be 3+^). 

2. if thou - - if ye or you - - 

3. if he, she, or it - - if they - - 

Passive Voice. 

1. if I (be loved). if we (be loved). 

2. if thou - - if ye or you - - 

3. if he, she, or it - - if they - - 

Past Tense Indefinite. 

1. if he (loved). if we (loved). 

2. if thou lovedst. if ye or you - 

3. if he, she, or it loved. if "they - 



ETYMOLOGY. 203 

Neuter Verb To Be. 

1. if I was. if we (were). 

2. if thou wast. if ye or you - 

3. if he, she, or it was. if they - 

Definite. 

1 . if I was (loving) . if we (were loving) . 

2. if thou wast - if ye or you - - 

3. if he, she, or it was - if they - - 

Passive Voice. 

1. if I was (loved). if we (were loved). 

2. if thou wast - if ye or you - - 

3. if he, she, or it was, if they - - 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. if I (have loved). if we (have loved). 

2. if thou - - if ye or you - - 

3. if he, she, or it - - if they - - 

Verb To Be. 

1. if I (have been). if we (have been). 

2. if thou - - if ve or you - - 

3. if he, she, or it - - if they - - 

Definite. 

1. if I (have been loving). if we (have been loving). 

2. if thou - - - if ye or you - - - 

3. if he, she, or it - - - if they - - - 

Passive Voice. 

1. if I (have been loved). if we (have been loved). 

2. if thou - - - if ye or you - - - 

3. if he, she, or it - - - if they - - - 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1. if I (had loved). if wc (had loved). 

2. if thou hadst - if ye or you - - - 

3. if he, she, or it had - if they - - 

Verb To Be. 
L if I (had been). . if we (had been). 

2. if thou hadst - if ye or you - - 

3. if he, she, or it - - if they - - 



204 etymology. 

Definite. 

1 . if I had (been loving) . if we had (been loving) , 

2. if thou hadst - - if ye or you had - - 

3. if he, she, or it had - - if they had - - 

Passive Voice. 

1. if I had (been loved). if we had (been loved). 

2. if thou hadst - - if ye or you had - - 

3. if he, she, or it had - - if they had - - 

512. (1) fast or loose. (2) LOOSE. 

(p) SURE Or UNSURE. (a) UNSURE. 

We ask (1), that we may receive (2). 

I should fear (1) that he would not do it (2). 

[Note. — These formula are for the apodosis.'] 

Present Tense Indefinite. 

1. I may love. we (may love). 

2. thou mayst love. ye or you - - 

3. he may love. they - - 

Verb To Be. 

1. I may be. we may be. 

2. thou mayst be. ye or you may be. 

3. he, she, or it may be. they may be. 

Definite. 

1. I may (be 3-{-ing). we may (be Z-\-ing)\ 

2. thou mayst - ye or you may - 

3. he, she, or it may - they may - 

Passive Voice. 
1. I may (be loved), &c. 

Past Tense. 

1. I might love. we might love. 

2. thou mightest love. ye or you might love. 

3. he might love. they might love. 

Verb To Be. 

1. I might be. we might be. 

2. thou mightest be. ye or you might be. 

3. he might be. they might be. 



etymology. 205 

Definite. 
1. I might (be 3-\-ing), &c. 

Passive Voice. 
1. I might be loved, &c. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. I may (have loved). we may (have loved). 

2. thou mayst - - ye or you may - - 

3. he, she, or it may - - they may - - 

Verb To Be. 

1. I may (have been), we may (have been). 

2. thou mayst - - ye or you may - - 

3. he, she, or it may - - we may - - 

Definite. 

1 . I may (have been 3-\-ing) . we may (have been S-\-ing) . 

2. thou mayst - - - ye or you may - - - 

3. he, she, or it may - - - they may - - - 

Passive Voice. 

1. I may (have been loved), we may (have been loved). 

2. thou mayst - - - ye or you may - - - 

3. he, she, or it may - - - they may - - - 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1. I might (have loved). we might (have loved). 

2. thou mightest - - ye or you might - - 

3. he, she, or it might - - they might - - 

Verb To Be. 

1. I might (have been). we might (have been). 

2. thou mightest - - ye or you might - - 

3. he, she, or it might - - they might - - 

Definite. 

1. I might (have been Z-\-iny) . we might (have been 3+/////). 

2. thou mightest - - - ye or you might - - - 

3. he, she, or it might they might - - - 

Passive Voice. 

1. I might (have been loved) . we might (have been loved). 

2. thou mightest - - - ye or you might - - - 

3. he, she, or it might they might - - - 



206 ETYMOLOGY. 

513. (1) HYPOTHETICAL. (2) FAST OV LOOSE. 

(p) HYPOTHETICAL. (a) SURE OV UNSURE. 

Lat.y " Haud istuc dicas (2), si cognoris vel me, vel amorem 
meum (1)."—Ter. And. iv. 1, 28. 

Present Tense. 

1. if I loved. *■ if we loved. 

2. if thou lovedst. if ye or you loved. 

3. if he, she, or it loved. if they loved. 

Verb To Be. 

1. if I were. if we were. 

2. if thou wert. if ye or you were. 

3. if he, she, or it were. if they were. 

Definite. 

1. if I were (3-\-ing). if we were (3-{-ing). 

2. if thou wert - if ye or you were - 

3. if he, she, or it were - if they were - 

Passive Voice. 

1. if I were (loved). if we were (loved). 

2. if thou wert - if ye or you were - 

3. if he, she, or it were - if they were - 

Present Perfect. 

1. .if I had (loved). if we had (loved). 

2. if thou hadst - if ye or you had - 

3. if he, she, or it had - if they had - 

Verb To Be. 

1. if I had (been). if we had (been). 

2. if thou hadst - if ye or you had - 

3. if he, she, or it had - if they had - 

Definite. 

1. if I had (been 3-^ing). if we had (been 3+^), 

2. if thou hadst - - if ye or you had - - 

3. if he, she, or it had - - if they had - - 

Passive Voice. 

1. if I had (been loved). if we had (been loved). 

2. if thou hadst - - if ye or you had - - 

3. if he, she, or it had - - if they had - - 



ETYMOLOGY. 207 



Future Tense. 



1. if I were (to love). if we were (to love). 

2. if thou wert - - if ye or you were - - 

3. if he, she, or it were - - if they were - - 

Verb To Be. 

1 . if I were (to be) . if we were (to be) . 

2. if thou wert - - if ye or you were - - 

3. if he, she, or it were - - if they were - - 

Definite. 

1. if I were (to be loving). if we were (to be loving). 

2. if thou wert - - - if ye or you were - - - 

3. if he, she, or it were if they were - - - 

Passive Voice. 

1 . if I were (to be loved) . if we were (to be loved) . 

2. if thou wert - - - if ye or you were - - - 

3. if he, she, or it were - - - if they were - - - 

Future Perfect Tense. 

1. if I were (to have loved), if we were (to have loved). 

2. if thou wert - - - if ye or you were - - - 

3. if he, she, or it were if they were - - - 

Verb To Be. 

1. if I were (to have been), if we were (to have been). 

2. if thou wert - - - if ye or you were - - - 

3. if he, she, or it were if they were - - - 

Definite. 

1. if I were (to havebeen loving) . if we were (tohavebeen loving). 

2. if thou wert - - - - if ye or you were - - - - 

3. if he, she, or it were if they were - - - - 

Passive Voice. 

1. if I were (to have been loved) . if we were (to have been loved) , 

2. if thou wert - - - - if ye or you were - - - - 

3. if he, she, or it were - - - - if they were - - - - 



208 ETYMOLOGY. 

514. (1) FAST Or LOOSE. (2) HYPOTHETICAL, 
(p) SURE Or UNSURE. (a) HYPOTHETICAL. 

1. I wish (1) that I loved (2). 

2. I wish (1) that thou lovedst (2). 

3. I wish (1) that he, she, or it loved (2). 

1. we could wish (1) that we loved (2). 

2. we could wish (1) that ye or you loved (2). 

3. we could wish (1) that they loved (2). 

The tense-forms of this mood are the same as those of the 
last (p) hypothetical, (a) sure or unsure. 

515. It is to be observed, that though some of the tense- 
forms of the hypothetical moods are the same as some of the 
indicative mood, they do not belong to the same tenses in 
both moods. 

{ I am not well, (indie.) ; if I were, I would walk out with 
you/ If I were, when ? — now. Therefore am in the indicative 
mood and ivere in the subjunctive are of the same time. 

' I was not at home when you called, (indie.) ; if I had 
been, I would have walked out with you/ If I had been, 
when ? — when you called. Therefore had been of the hypo- 
thetical answers in time to was of the indicative mood. 

' You do not rebuke him/ c If I did, he would not hearken 
to me/ If I did, when? — now. So did of the hypothetical 
mood answers in time to do of the indicative. 

' I have not served God faithfully ; if I had, He would not 
have forsaken me/ 

Hence we see that the English language has a true sub- 
junctive mood formula, since it tells a protasis or apodosis by 
subjunctive tense-forms or mood-forms ; or, at least, it tells a 
protasis or apodosis of one tense in the subjunctive mood by 
a formula, which in the indicative mood would belong to 
another tense, — a proof that it is not the indicative mood. 

Murray says "that some tenses of the subjunctive mood 
are, in general, similar to the corresponding tenses of the 
indicative mood;" which is not true of the hypothetical sub- 
junctive mood, if it is of the unsure subjunctive. It is true 
that some tense-forms of the hypothetical subjunctive mood 
are similar to some tense-forms of the indicative mood, but 
not those of the corresponding tenses. 



ETYMOLOGY. 209 

516. There are often given or understood in these two- 
predicate moods two conjunctions, one to each of the pre- 
dicates, to mark their connection, as it may be free, after- 
hanging, or adverse. 

1st Conjunction. Protasis. 2nd Conjunction. Apodosis. 

since 1 i j f therefore 1 j 

when ) ? e asked ' i then } ? e receivecL 

™ J* ye ask, j t £° n lye shall receive. 

though ye ask, yet ye will not receive. 

These conjunctions are called correlatives, as they relate one 
to the other, and mark the connection of the predicates as 
free, on-hanging, or adverse. 

517. Threefold Propositions. 

There may be given three onhanging propositions, such 
that the first may lead the other two, and one of the other two 
may lead the third ; as, 

(A) I ask (1) so, that if it is for the best (2) I may 
receive (3) , 

(B) If you asked (1), you wished (2) that you might 
receive (3). 

(C) If it be not given (1), I shall wish (2) that I had 
not asked (3). 

(D) You may conclude (1), that if you do not ask (2), you 
will not receive (3) . 

(E) I hope (1) that if I were a king (2), I should be just (3) . 

(F) If it were my business to judge (1), I should think (2) 
that he was guilty (3) . 

(G) Whenever we sin (1), then we become more the slaves 
of sin (2), so that it is harder for us to do good (3). 

(H) If a tree brings forth fruit (1), then it shall be 
pruned (2), that it may bring forth more fruit (3). 

(I) When the sailors saw the mercury sink (1), then they 
reefed their sails (2), because they thought a storm was at 
hand (3). 

In these threefold propositions the last two may be taken 
together as an apodosis to the first, or the first two may be 
taken as one protasis to the third. 

The formula (F) is one of a kind in which the first of the three 
propositions is often omitted by an enthymeme ; and thus we 



210 ETYMOLOGY. 

may utter those only of the following propositions which are 
printed in Roman type, omitting those given in italics. 

If wishing would bring him, I could wish that he might come, 
If my opinion were sought, I should say that he would come. 
If you were to see him, you would think that he was crazy. 

Thence come some of the twofold (both fast and loose) 
formulae of some of the protases and apodoses in the foregiven 
cases of the subjunctive mood. 

518. Two-Mood Formula. 

What are here called two-mooded formulae are either not 
worthy of the name mood, or are almost innumerable. 

They would not have been here given as moods or mood- 
formulae had not most Teutonic grammarians holden one of 
them as such, though it may not be amiss to class them 
together under the name of two-mooded formulae. 

The formula here called a two-moocled formula, is one com- 
posed of one of the true finite mood-forms with an infinite 
mood-form ; as, 'possum scribere/ which is a potential formula 
of two forms or moods. 

Here it may be answered that this cannot be a potential 
mood-formula of the verb ' scribere/ which is in the infinitive 
form. Be it so ; but then it must follow that f I can write/ 
' I might write/ ' Ich kan schreiben/ is no potential mood-form 
of the verb write or schreiben, for the helping verb can is the 
present tense-form of the Anglo-Saxon verb cunn-an, to 
know : ' Ic can sing-an/ is ' I know (how) to sing/ aud 
sing -an is in the infinitive mood-form : and yet this is a con- 
clusion which grammarians do not receive. 

So the helping verb may is the Anglo-Saxon mag, the 
present tense of mag-an, to be able; 'Ic maeg stand-an/ is 
' possum stare/ ' I am able to stand/ ' I may to stand/ which, 
by ellipsis of the word to, becomes ' I may stand/ 

It may be answered, that ' I can write/ and ' I may write/ 
may be taken as mood-formulae of the verb write, inasmuch as 
they have lost the particle to and every token of the infinitive 
mood ; but if the omission of to from the infinitive form of 
the formula ' I can write ; would make it a potential one, then 
' bid him *sing/ ' I have known him ♦sing/ would be mood- 
formulae of the verb ' to sing/ while ' bid him to sing/ and 
e I have known him to sing/ would not, which would be 



ETYMOLOGY. 211 

absurd. It is true that can and may hare been worn down 
into bare helping verbs ; and therefore, as they are hardly no- 
tional words alone, they may be fairly taken only as elements 
of a mood-formula, which may as fairly be called the poten- 
tial mood. 

The past tense-form of magan is mihte, our word might. 
1 Ic mseg stand-an/ ' I am able to stand/ ' possum stare/ 
' Ic miht stand-an/ ' I was able to stand/ ' poteram stare/ 
The past tense-form of cunn-an is cu§e, our word could. 
1 Ic can siug-an/ ( I know (how) to sing/ Ital., ' so cantare/ 
f Ic cu§e sing-an/ ' I knew (how) to sing/ 

If the mood-forms with can, could, may, might, are to be 
reckoned for two-mooded formulae, so must those of the for- 
mulas with shall, should, will, would, and must. 

519. The helping verb must is in Anglo-Saxon most, and 
means owe, ' Ic moste gan/ I owe ' to go/ ' I must to go/ 
which, by ellipsis of the word to, becomes ' I must *go/ 

For want of a verb exactly equal to our must, the Latins 
like the Hindoos, made the action the nominative case; as, 
' Eundum est mini/ ' It is to be gone to me/ 

f Tumker jono hui/ .... ( Eundum est vobis/ 

520. Potential Mood. 

The potential mood is that of a predicate within the power 
of the subject; as, ' I can write/ ' you may play/ 

Present Tense. 

1. I may or can love. • we may or can love. 

2. thou mayst or canst - ye or you may or can - 

3. he, she, or it may or can - they may or can - 

Verb To Be. 

1. I may or can be. we may or can be. 

2. thou mayst or canst - ye or you may or can - 

3. he, she, or it may or can - they may or can - 

Definite. 

1. I may or can (be loving). we may or can (be loving). 

2. thou mayst or canst - - ye or you may or can - - 

3. he, she, or it may or can - - they may or can - - 



212 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Passive Voice. 

1. I may or can (be loved). we may or can (be loved). 

2. thou mayst or canst - - ye or you may or can - - 

3. he, she, or it may or can - - they may or can - - 

The Turkish language has a form of the verb called the 
impossible form for the negative potential mood-form; it is 
made by the insetting of a breathsound between the root and 
the token of negation. 

Sev-mek, to love ; sev-me-mek, not to love ; sev-eh-me-mek, 
not to be able to love. 

Past Tense. 



I might or could 

thou mightest or couldest . 
he, she, or it might or could 

we might or could 

ye or you might or could . 
they might or could .... 

Present Perfect Tense. 



Active 
Voice. 

love. 


Verb 
To Be. 

be. 


Definite. 
be loving. 








— 



Passive 
Voice. 

be loved. 



I may or can 

thou mayst or canst . . . 
he, she, or it may or can . 



we may or can 

ye or you may or can . . 
they may or can 

Past Perfect Tense. 



have 
loved. 



have 
been. 



have been 
loving. 



have been 
loved. 



I might or could \ 

thou mightest or couldest . 
he might or could 



we might or could .... 
ye or you might or could 
they might or could . . . 



have 
loved. 



have 
been. 



have been 
lovins:. 



have been 
loved. 



521. Mood formulas composed of shall and will, and their past 
tense-forms should and would, are in truth two-mooded formulas. 

Shall is the A.-Saxon sceal, from scealan, to owe ; and its 
past tense-form should is the A.-Saxon sceolde, 1 1 owed/ 

Will is from wyll-an, to will or wish; and its past tense- 
form would is wolde, ' I willed or wished/ 



ETYMOLOGY. 213 

522. (1) fast or LOOSE. (2) FAST. 
(p) SURE Or UNSURE. (a) SURE. 

Because I shall ask (1), I shall receive (2). 
Because he will not ask (1), he shall not receive (2). 
Whenever he asks (1), he shall receive (2). 

The present tense-forms of shall and will are mostly elements 
of indicative mood-forms ; and their past tense-forms should 
and would go to the formation of subjunctive mood formulae 
and two-mooded formulae of other kinds. 

523. (1) LOOSE. (2) FAST. 
(p) UNSURE. (a) SURE. 

If he should ask (1), he will receive (2). 
Though I should die with thee (1), yet will I not deny thee (2) . 
If you should fail in your undertaking (1), yet you will have 
done your best (2) . 

524. (1) fast or loose. (2) LOOSE. 

(p) SURE. (a) UNSURE. 

I begged, or thought, or wished (1) that he would ask (2). 
Yelim (1) quaeras (2) ; i.e. Velim (1) ut quaeras (2). 

Ovid, Ep. iv. 18. 
Tua dicar (2) oportet (1) ; i.e. Oportet (1) ut tua dicar (2). 

Ovid, Ep. Penel. i. 83. 

The potential mood-form is often found in places for which 
the indicative might seem more fitting, but it mostly, if not 
always, answers to some looseness of person, time, or pre- 
dicate; as, 'Nescio qualis sit/ not est. I know not what 
kind of man he may become, or be found, when he is tried, 
or known, or seen. 

525. (1) HYPOTHETICAL. (2) FAST. 
(p) HYPOTHETICAL. (a) SURE. 

If he would ask (1), (as he will not), he should receive (2). 

526. (1) FAST. (2) HYPOTHETICAL. 
(p) SURE. (a) HYPOTHETICAL. 

I wish (1) that he would ask (2), (as he will not). 



214 



ETYMOLOGY. 



527. 



Other Two-Mooded Formula. 



Children should obey their parents. 

Here should is equal to ought, which means owed; and we 
may say either Children should obey, or ought to obey. 

" He would not ask; i.e. He willed not to ask. 



528. 



English Strong Verbs. 



1st Class. — Verbs with a close -sound in their present tense- 
form, aud an open one in their past tense-form, and their par- 
ticiples (3), or (3+m). 

Note. — The figures given with the verbs betoken the vowel sounds 
(by Art. 74, 75) of their past tense-forms in sundry Teutonic dialects. 
Thus, 6 Ger., Cumberland, means that the vowel sound in German and 
the Cumberland dialect is the 6th. 6 Sco., 3 Bible, shows that in 
Scotch it is the 6th, and in the Bible language it is the 3rd. A fractional 
form of figures (f) betokens that the verb takes a diphthong; as, 
f Norse, which means that in the Norse or Icelandic the sounds are a 
diphthong of the 3rd and 1st. 

The good of this comparison is, that it may show us which of two 
or more forms, such as trod and trode, stands by the best authorities 
in the Teutonic tongues. 



abide, 
arise, 
awake, 

bear, 

begin, 

2 bid, 
bind, 

break, 

cling, 

dig, 
drink, 

drive, 

eat, 
Norse, eta 3 



abode, (7) 

arose, (7) 

awoke, (7) 

(bare, (3) \ 

[bore, (7) ) 

( begun, (7) ) 

( began, (5) ) 

bad(5),bade(3) 

bound, (£) 
( brake, (3) ") 
(broke, (7) ) 

clung, (7) 

dug, (7) 
drank, (5) 
{ drove, (7) 
I drave, (3) 

eat, (3) 



abode, 
aris-en. 

borne (bor-en). 

begun. 

bidd-en. 
bound. 

brok-en. 

clung. 

dug. 
drunk. 

driv-en. 



3-5 Norse, 3 Bible, 
6 German. 

5 German. 

7 Ger., 3 Bible. 

6 German. 

6 German, Cumb., 
6 Sco., 3 Bible. 



6 German, Norse. 
( 1 German, 3 Bible, 
(^ Scotch, Cumb. 

5 German. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



215 



English Strong Verbs. 

1st Class — continued. 



fight, 


fought, (6) 


fought. 


7 German. 


find, 


found, f 


found. 


( 6 German, Norse, 
\ Cumi.f Scotch. 


fling 


flung, (7) 


flung. 


2-5 Cumberland. 


%> 


flew, (8) 


flown (flow-en). 


7 German. 


forget, 


forgot, (6) 


forgott-en. 


6 German, Bible. 


forsake, 


forsook (8) 


forsak-en. 




freeze, 


froze, (7) 


frozen. 


7 German. 


get, 


gat (5), got (6), 


gott-en. 


5 Sco., Cumb. 


give, 


gave, (3) 


given. 


5 German. 


grind, 


ground, (f) 


ground. 




5 hang, 


hung, (7) 


hung. 


1 German. 


lie, 


lay, m 


lain (lay-en). 


5 German. 


ride, f ") 
Nor. rid-a,(l) ) 


rode, (7) 


ridd-en. 


1 German, \ Norse. 


ring, 


(rang, (5) ") 
I rung, (7) j 


rung. 


6 German. 


rise, ") 
Nor. ris-a,(l) ) 


rose, (7) 


ris-en. 


f Norse. 

C 6 Ger., sometimes 
\ a weak verb in Sco 


see, 


saw, (6) 


seen (see-en). 


shake, 


shook, (8) 


shak-en. 




shear, ") 
2V0r.,sker-a3 ) 


shore, (7) 


shorn (shor-en). 


5 Norse. 


shine, ) 
„ skin-a,(l) ) 


shone, (6) 


shone. 


1 German, f Norse. 


shrink, 


shrunk, (7) 


shrunk. 




sing, 


C sang, (5) ] 
I sung, (7) j 


sung. 


( 6 Ger., f Norse, 
\ t Swedish. 


sink, 
sit, 


Csank, (5) \ 
I sunk, (7) j 
sat, (5) 


sunk-en. 
sat. 


6 German, \ Swed. 
( 6 German, Essex, 
( Amer., 1-5 Norse 


slay, 


slew, (8) 


slain (slay-en). 


\ German, Norse. 


sling, 


slung, (7) 


slung. 


6 German. 


slink, 


slunk, (7) 


slunk. 


2 German. 


smite, 
speak, 


smote, (7) 
spoke, (7) 


smitt-en. 
spok-en. 


( 5 German, Cumb., 
1 3 Bible 


spin, | 


spun, (7) 1 
span, (5) ) 


spun. 


5 German, Norse. 


spring, 


C sprang, (5)) 
I spmng,(7) j 


sprung. 


5 German, Norse. 



216 



ETYMOLOGY. 





English 


Strong Verbs. 




1st Class — continued. 




steal, ") 
iW.stel-an 3 ) 


stole, (7) 


stol-en. 


6 Ger., 5 Norse. 


stick, 


stuck, (7) 


stuck. 


6 German. 


sting, 


stung, (7) 


stung. 


5 Norse. 


stink, 


( stank, (6) \ 
I stunk, (7) ) 


stunk. 


6 German t Bible. 


stride, 


strode, (7) 


stridd-en. 


1 German. 


strike, 


struck, (7) 


strick-en. 


5 Cumberland. 


string, 


strung, (7) 


strung. 




strive, 


strove, (7) 


striv-en. 




swear, 


( swore, (7) 1 
( sware, (3) ) 


swor-en. 




swing, 


swung, (7) 


swung. 


6 German. 


swim, 


C swam, (5) ") 
( swum, (7) ) 


swum. 


6 German. 


take, 


took, (8) 


tak-en. 


5-8 Norse. 


tear, 


tore, (7) 


tor-en. 


3 Bible. 


thrive, 


throve, (7) 


thriv-en. 




tread, 

Jc^.,tro-3-a,(7) 


(trod, (6) ] 
[trode, (7) ) 


trodd-en. 


( 6 Ger. t 5 Norse, 
\ 3 Yorkshire. 


win, 


won, (7) 


won. 


( 1-5 Norse, 2-5 Cum 
\ berland, 6 Ger. 


wear, 


wore, (7) 


wor-en. 




weave, 


wove, (7) 


wov-en. 


8 Ger., | Norse. 


wind, 


wound, (f) 


wound. 




wring, 


wrung, (7) 


wrung. 


6 German. 


write, 


wrote, (7) 


writt-en. 





529. English Strong Verbs. 

2nd Class. — Verbs with a more open sound in their present 
tense-form, and closer one in their past tense-form : 

bite, ^ 
Nor.bit-a,(l) 
blow, (7) 



come, (7) 
crow, (7) 
draw, (6) 
fall, (6) 
grow, (7) 



bit, (1) 
blew, (8 i) 



came, (3) 
crew, (8 1) 
drew, (8 £) 
fell, (3) 
grew, (8 i) 



bitten. 
C blown 
( (blow-en). 



come. 



( drawn 
( (draw-en). 

fall-en. 
( grown 
\ (grow-en). 



5 A.-Sax., f Norse. 



1 German. 

5 Ger., Sco., Norse, 
7 Cumberland. 



3 Norse. 
1 German. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



217 



English Strong Verbs. 

2nd Class — continued. 



hold, (7) 


held, (3) 


hold-en. 


1 German. 


know, (7) 


knew, (8 |) 


( known 
\ (know -en). 




run, (7) 


ran, (5) 


run. 


5 German, Norse. 


8 shoot, (8)^ 

German, > 

schiess-en,(l)^ 








shot, (6) 


shot. 


7 German. 








throw, (7) 


threw, (8 |) 


( thrown 
\ (throw-en) 




530. 


Mixed Verbs. 





Mixed verbs are those which are or were in kind both 
strong and weak verbs ; or such as took their past tense-form 
by a shifting of the root-sound, and also by the ending of the 
weak verbs. 

Their past tense-forms would now seem, at first sight, not to 
be formed by tense-ending from their roots, as they have 
come through several forms which are lost, though enough of 
analogous ones are found in other Teutonic tongues to show 
the former being of such forms. 

Their past tense-form in Anglo-Saxon was (3-\-ode), in 
Gothic it was (3-\-ida), and in German it is [2>-\~et) ; and 
their actual English forms will be better understood with their 
successive forms of immutation, and the canons of articulation 
by which they took them. (Art. 56, &c.) 

beseech . 
bring . . . 



buy 

C*.<S.bycge-an)j 

I 
can | eim-ode 

(-4.-5.cunn-a:i 

-to know how,j 

to be able) 



besoc-ode I besoc*de 

brong-ode j brong*de . 
(Cum.brong bro*g*de . 
brang); 

bocu-ode 



besoc*te ( 4 « 8 >| beso*te (^ 
besought. I 



catch 



( | coc-ode 

\ I cotch-ode . coc*dc 



do 

(A.-S. don, 
do-an, dy-an) 



dij-ode . . dy*d 
Go.ga-tawida 
Ger. tlm*t 




bocg*di 



cun*de . . 
Ger. kannte 



brought 

bought 
could 

oan jht 
did 



218 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Mixed Verbs, — continued. 



seek 

(A.-S. sec-an) 

sell 



shoe , 
stand 



teach 

(A.-S. tsec-an) 

teU 



will 



soc-ode . . 
( Icel. soc-ti) 

sol-ode . . 
(Cum. sel-t) 


soc*de . . 


sdc-te . . . 
(Ger. socht) 


so*te < 4 > 8 > . 


sot* 
sold* 
sho*d 


(Icel. sel-di) 






stond. . . . 
toe-ode . . 

tol-ode . . 
^one-ode . 

woll-ode . 


sto*d . . . 
toc*de . . . 

tol*de . . . 


stod < 4 » 6 > . . 




toc-te . . . 


to*t ^ . . 


taught 

told* 
tho*t 

would 


cSonc*de . 
So*c*de. 


£o*c*te . . 
{Ger. daclite) 


thohte < 4 > 8 > 
(Ice. -pdtte) 

wold* . . . 


(Icel. vil-di) 





sold 

shod 
stood 



told 
thought 



531 



Shortened Long Roots. 



These verbs have a long present tense-form and short past 
tense-form; and when their present tense-form ends with a 
weak consonant, it becomes strong in their past tense-form. 



bend ! bend-ode 



bite . . . . 
bleed . . . 
(A.-S. bled) 

breed . . . 
build . . . 
burn . . . . 



chide . . . 
(A-S. cid) 

deal .... 
(A.-SAdd\-an) 
Goth 

feed I 

(A.-S. fed) ) 

gild 



gird ") 

(A.-S. gyrd) j 

hide ") 

(A.-S.hyd) j 



bit-ode, 
bled-ode, 

bred-ode, 
bild-ode, 
bren-ode, 

cid-ode, 

dsel-ode, 
ga-dailida 

fed-ode, 

gild-ode, 
gyrd-ode, 

hyd-ode, 



bend*de, 
bit*de, 

bled*de, 

bred*de, 
bild*de, 
bren*de, 
Ger. 

cid*de, 
dsel*de, 



fed*de, 

gild*de, 
gyrd*de, 

hyd*de, 



bent*te(4) 
bit*te, 

bledd* 

bredd*, 

bilt*te, 

brent*te, 

brannte. 




bentt*, 
bit*. 

bled. 



bred, 
biltt* 

brentt*, 

cidd*, 
dselt* 

fedd*, 

giltt* 
gyrtt* 

hydd*, 



bent. 



built, 
burnt. 

chid. 

dealt. 

fed. 

gilt, 
girt. 

hid. 



lead | 

(A.-S.13B&) j 

lend 

meet . . . .} 
(J.-S. met) j 

read 

rend 

send 

Goth. 

slide 

speed . . . ) 
(A.-S. sped) J 



Shortened 

laed-ode, 
lend-ode, 
met*ode, 



rsed*ode, 
rend-ode, 

send-ode, 
send-ida, 
slid- ode, 



sped-ode, 

spend- ode spend*de 



ETYMOLOGY. 

Long Roots — continued. 

lsed*de, 

lend*de, 

met*de, 

rsed*de, 
rend*de, 

send*de, 

Ger. sandte 

slyd*de, 

sped*de, 



219 




led. 

lent. 

met. 

read, 
rent. 

sent. 

slid, 
sped. 

spent. 



532. 



f -clippings and others. 



bereave . . 7 

(A.S., bereafi-an) ) 


bereaf-ode 


bereaf*de, 


bereaf*te, 


bereaft*, 


bereft 


cleave . . .^ 

(J.S., cleaf-an) [ 


cleaf-ode, 


cleaf*de, 


cleaf*te, 


cleaft*, 


cleft. 


{Norse, kljuf-c 


) ) 








klauf, f 




creep . 




creep -ed, 


creep*d, 


creep*t, 


crept, 


crept 


dwell . 


lcel.y 


dwell- ed, 
dval-di, 


dwell*d, 


dwell*t, 


dwelt, 


dwelt 


feel . . 




feel-ed, 


feel*d, 


feel*t, 


felt, 


felt. 


flee 


flee-ed, 


flee*d, 




fled, 


fled. 


hear . . 




hear-ed, 


hear*d, 




herd, 


heard 


keep . 


Sco., 


keep-ed, 
keep-it, 


keep*d, 


keep*t, 


kept, 


kept. 


leave. . 
(J.-JS.ljf- 


anjj 


lyf-ode, 


lyf*de, 


lyf*te, 


lyft*, 


left. 


lose . 




los-ed, 

sleep-ed, 
spill-ed, 


los*d, 

sleep*d, 
spill*d, 


los*t . . 

sleep*t, 
spill*t, 


lost, 

slept, 
spilt, 


lost. 


sleep .... 
spill 


slept 

spilt 



*20 



ETYMOLOGY, 



533. 




Short 


Roots. 






burst . . 


burst-ed . . 


burst*d . . . 


burst*t ... 1 1 




Dors, bust-ed 




Ger., weak verb, 8-6, 7 ; 

Icel. and Cumb., weak verb, 3-5. 


cast . . . 


cast-ed . . . 
cost-ed . . . 
cut-ed .... 


cast*d .... 
cost*d .... 
cut*d .... 


cast*t .... J 




cost . . . 


cost*t .... 




cut .... 


cut*t | 






Cumb. and Sco., strong verb, cut-cot. 


hit 


hit-ed .... 


hit*d 


hit*t 




hit. . 


hurt . . . 


hurt-ed . . . 
Dors, hurt-ed 


hurt*d . . . 


hurt*t 














let 


let-ode .... 


let*de 


let*te 


lett* . . 




U.S. lset) 












put .... 


put-ed .... 


put*d .... 


put*t 






Cumb., strong verb, put-pat. 


rid .... 


rid-ed .... 


rid*d 






rid. . 


set .... 


set-ode . . . 
Goth, sat-ida. 


set*de .... 


set*te .... 
Icel. set-ti. 


sett* . . 





shed . . . 


shed-ed . . . 


shed*d . . . 




shedd . . 




shred . . 


shred-ed . . 


shred*d . . . 




shredd . 




shut . . . 


shut-ed . . . 


shut*d . . . 


shut*t 






slit . . . . 












spit . . . 
(A.-S. spset) 
split . . . 
spread. . 
sweat . . 


spset-ode . . 

split-ed . . 
spread-ed . . 
sweat- ed . . 


spet*de . . . 

split* d . . . 
spread*d . . 
sweat*d . . . 


spet*te . . . 

split*t 

spredd .... 
swett 


spett* . 
split . . . 


spit, 
spat. 




Cumb. and Sco., strong verb, sweat. 


thrust . . 


thrust-ed . . 


thrust*d . . 


thrust*t . . . 


1 





cast, 
cost, 
cut. 

hit. 
hurt. 

let. 

put. 

rid. 

set. 

shed, 
shred, 
shut. 



split, 
spread, 
sweat. 

thrust. 



534. Many Teutonic verbs which are weak in English are 
strong in some other Teutonic dialects : 

("bake baked. 

\ back-en, Ger buk, b*k 8, Ger. 

bequeath bequeath-ed. 

9 * $ f , Norse. 

burst burst. 

b*rst f , Norse, Cumb. 

climb climb-ed. 

klomm 7, Ger., Cumb., Dorset. 

/•creep crep-t. 

) crope 7, Dorset. 

' krjup-a, Norse kraup f. 

( drip, drop dripp-ed, dropp-ed. 

( trief-en, Ger trot* 7, Ger. ; draup f, Norse, 



ETYMOLOGY. 221 

glide glid-ed; gl*t, Gei\ 2. 

( grave graved. 

(grab-en, Ger gr*b, Ger. 8, Norse $. 

( gripe grip-ed. 

(greif, Ger griff, Ger. 

/•have hav-ed, hav*d. 

] hsef*ode, haef*de ha3*de, hsed*, had. 

Chafa, Icel haf*3i. 

heave heav-ed. 

hove (among sailors). 

hob, 7 Ger. ; hof, 7 Norse. 

help help-ed ; half, 6 Ger. 

C lade lad-ed. 

(lad-en, Ger hid, 8 Ger. 

( leap leap*d, leap*t. 

( hlaup-a, Norse hlidp, -f ; lap, Sco. Cumb. 

("lie li-ed. 

(liig-, Ger log, 7 Ger. 

make . . . mak-ed, 0. Fjng., mak*d, ma*d, made. 

C milk milk-ed. 

(melk-en, Ger molk, 7 Ger. 

( praise prais-ed. 

\ preis-en, f Ger pries, 1 Ger. 

quit quitt-ed ; quat, Sco. 

( reek reek-ed. 

( rjuk-a, Norse rauk f. 

( rub rubb-ed. 

(reib-en, f Ger rieb, 1 Ger. 

/■seeth seeth-ed. 

j sid-en, Ger sott, 7 Ger. 

^•sjo$-a, Norse sauS, "Norse. 

( shape shupe, 0. Eiuj. 

(schaff-en schuf, 7 Ger. 

( sleep slep-t. 

(schlaff-en, 5 Ger sclilief, 1 Ger. 

( slip slipp-ed. 

( slepp, Icel Blapp, 5 Icel. 

5 snuff snuff-ed. 

schnib-en, Ger schnob, 7 Ger. 

strive. 



222 ETYMOLOGY. 



(suck suck-ed. 

< saug-en, f Ger sog, 7 Ger. 

v-sjuk-a i Norse saug, f Norse. 

sweat . . Cumb. and Sco. strong verb, sweat-swat. 

( swell swell-ed. 

( schweh-en, Ger schwoll, 7 Ger. ; svall, 5 Icel. 

thresh . . . , thresh-ed; dr*sch, 7-6 Ger. 

(•wash wash-ed. 

\ wasch-en, Ger wusch, 8 Ger. 

(.vax-a, Norse ox, 7. 

C wax wax-ed. 

(wachs-en, Ger wuehs, 8 Ger. 

( weigh weigh-ed. 

\ wag-en, Ger wog, 7 Ger. 

-wet wett-ed ; wat, Sco. 



535. Some verbs are of irregular conjugation from the 
substitution, in some of their tenses, of different roots. 

The present tense of go, Anglo-Saxon gdn, has been sub- 
stituted for that of the old verb to wend, the present tense of 
which was 

1. I wend. we wend. 

2. thou wendest. ye or you wend. 

3. he wends. they wend. 

The past tense of this verb is retained : 

1. I went. we went. 

2. thou wentest. ye or you went. 

3. he went. they went. 

" Like a poor pedler he did wend." — Shepherd's Calend., 1588. 

In Scotland they say still ' he gaed.' 

Be, as in the subjunctive mood of the verb to be, ' if I be/ 
is from the Anglo-Saxon verb beon; and was and were are 
from the Anglo-Saxon wesan. 

So, in Latin, fero takes its past tense tuli from tollo ; and 
<psp«, in Greek, takes its future tense-form, ofou, from ofu ; 
and its perfect present tense-form, ijveyiia, from heym/i* 



ETYMOLOGY. 223 



536. One-thing Verbs, Two-thing Verbs, and 

Three-thing Verbs. 

A neuter or intransitive verb is the name of an action that 
one thing cannot do to another ; as, ' to walk/ ' to sleep ;' and 
as such verbs do not want any noun but that of the subject 
to stand with them in the sentence, they are one- thing verbs. 

537. An active or transitive verb is the name of an action 
that one thing can do to another ; as, ' to strike/ ' to love ; ' 
and such a verb is taken with at least two things named or 
understood in the sentence, — the subject and object; as, ' John 
struck the ball/ ( Mary loves her mother/ 

Active or transitive verbs are at least two-thing verbs. 

538. But some of the active or transitive verbs are taken 
with three things, named or understood under the sentence, — 
the subject, the first object, and the further object; as, 'John 
gave an orange to his sister/ where John is the subject, 
orange is the first or nearest object, and his sister is the 
further object ; and the action to give is one that can hardly 
take place Avithout such three things, and is a three-thing verb. 

539. It is needful in general grammar to understand the 
differences of one, two, and three-thing verbs, and especially 
the three-thing ones; inasmuch as the verbs of some lan- 
guages, such as the Basque and the languages of the tribes of 
North America, are formed to betoken by breath-sounds and 
clippings, under their own forms, sundry relations of the throe 
things as subject and objects; and other languages mark the 
relations of the three things by sundry settings of pronouns. 

540. To betoken these relations of subject and objects we 
may take the letter a for the first person singular, h lor the 
second person singular, and c for the third person singular; 
as for the first person plural, //.? for the second person plural, 
and c's for the third person plural. Then let the figure 3 
stand for the verb, and let the person that is subject be be- 
tokened by a capital letter in the first place, and let the object- 
persons be betokened by small letters, the first object by 
a small Roman letter, and the further object by a small 
italic letter. 



224 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Then (A * 3 . c . b) would mean that the 1st person singular 
is subject, the 3rd person singular the first object, and the 
2nd person singular the further object; as, 
I gave it to thee, 
j . b. 



A* b 3 



541. In languages which have pronouns for the singular 
and plural number there are 6 pronouns and 6 cases of 
subject-pronouns, with actions reflected on the agent. 

A. 3. a. A's. 3. a's. 

I strike myself. we strike ourselves. 

B. 3. b. B's. 3. b's. 
thou strikest thyself. ye strike yourselves. 

C. 3. c. C's. 3. c's. 

he, she, or it strikes himself, &c. they strike themselves. 
Intransitive and reflective verbs are one-thing verbs. 



542. 



Two-thing Verbs. 



In sentences of two-thing verbs, pronouns may come in 
in pairs, — subject and object. 

The number of permutations, by two and two, in pairs 
that can be made up of n things, is n(n — 1), which,- with 
6 pronouns, would be 6X5=30 ; so that, in a language which 
has pronoun-forms for the singular and plural number without 
dual forms, there may be 30 sundry pairs of pronouns with 
two-thing verbs. 



A. 


3. 


b. 


I love thee. 


A's. 


3. 


b. 


we love thee. 


A. 


3. 


c. 


I love him. 


A's. 


3. 


c. 


we love him. 


A. 


3. 


b's. 


I love you. 


A's. 


3. 


b's. 


we love you. 


A. 


3. 


c's. 


I love them. 


A's. 


3. 


c's. 


we love them. 


B. 


3. 


a. 


thou lovest me. 


B's. 


3. 


a. 


ye love me. 


B. 


3. 


c. 


thou lovest him. 


B's. 


3. 


c. 


ye love him. 


B. 


3. 


as. 


thou lovest us. 


B's. 


3. 


a's. 


ye love us. 


B. 


3. 


c's. 


thou lovest them. 


B's. 


3. 


c's. 


ye love them. 


C. 


3. 


a. 


he loves me. 


C's. 


3. 


a. 


they love me. 


C. 


3. 


b. 


he loves thee. 


C's. 


3. 


b. 


they love thee 


C. 


3. 


a's. 


he loves us. 


C's. 


3. 


as. 


they love us. 


C. 


3. 


b's. 


he loves you. 


C's. 


3. 


b's. 


they love you. 



The following relations are not permutations. 

C. 3. c. he loves him. C. 3. c's. he loves them. 

C's. 3. c's. they love them. 

4 other forms ... A. 3. a's.— B. 3. b's.— A's. 3. a.— B's. 3. 5.— 
are not, from their relations, likely to be often used. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



225 



The Basque and Cree tongues have verb-endings for the 
foregoing relations, which, therefore, they betoken without 
pronouns. 

If a language had three dual forms of pronouns besides the 
singular and plural ones, it would have 9 pronoun forms, and 
therefore n(n — 1) or 9X8=72 cases of two-pronoun verbs; 
and if a language had two forms of pronoun for the first 
person plural (1+2) and (1+2+3), without dual-forms, it 
would have 7 pronoun-forms and 7X6=42 cases of two- 
pronoun verbs. 



543. 



Three-thing Verbs. 



The permutations that can be made of n things, in sets of 
three and three, are n(n — 1), (n — 2), which, with 6 pronouns, 
would be 6X5X4=120; but we do not find verb-forms for 
all the permutations of the 6 pronouns in the Basque or Cree 
^nguage, as many of them are of rare occurrence, while, on 
the other hand, both Basque and Cree have verb-forms for re- 
lations with which the same person and number appear twice. 

A. 3. b. b's. is a permutation answering to the sentence 
r I gave thee to you/ which is useless; while 'he gave it to 
him/ or C. 3. c. c, with the subject and both the two objects 
of the third person singular, is a common three-thing relation, 
though not truly a permutation at all. 

The Basque has verb-forms for the following 56 permu- 
tations, which are all those in which a third person appears 
as a first object. 



1. 


B. 


3. c. 


a. 


. thou 3 it to me. 


19. 


C. 


3. c. c. . 


he 3 it for hini. 


2. 


C. 


3. c. 


a. 


. he 3 it to me. 


20. 


A's 


3. c. c. . 


we 3 it for him. 


3. 


B's 


3. c. 


a. 


. ye 3 it to me. 


21. 


B's. 


3. c. c. . 


ye 3 it for him. 


4, 


C's 


3. c. 


a. 


. they 3 it to me. 


22. 


C's. 


3. c. c. . 


they 3 it for him. 


5. 


B. 


3. c's 


a. 


. thou 3 them to me. 


23. 


A. 


3. c's. c. . 


I 8 them for him. 


6. 


C. 


3. c's 


a. 


. he 3 tliem to me. 


24. 


B. 


3. c's. c. . 


thou 8 them for him 


7. 


B's 


3. c's 


a. 


. ye 3 them to me. 


25. 


C. 


3. c's. c. . 


he 3 them for him. 


8. 


C's 


3. c's 


a. 


. they 3 them to me. 


20. 


A's. 


3. c's. c. . 


we 3 them for him. 


9. 


A. 


3. c. 


b. 


. I 3 it to thee. 


27. 


B's. 


3. c's. c. . 


\c 8 them to him. 


10. 


C. 


3. c. 


b. 


. he 3 it to thee. 


28. 


C's. 


3. c's. c. . 


they 3 them to him. 


11. 


A's 


3. c. 


b. 


. we 3 it to thee. 


29. 


B. 


8. <■. ttl, . 


them 3 it to us. 


12. 


C's 


3. c. 


b. 


. they 3 it to thee. 


30. 


C. 


3. c. a's. . 


he B it to tie. 


13. 


A. 


3. c's 


b. 


. I 3 them to thee. 


81. 


B's. 


3. c. a's. . 


ye 3 it to us. 


11, 


C. 


3. c's 


b. 


. he 3 them to thee. 


32. 


C's. 


8. <•. a*». . 


they 3 it to up. 


15. 


A's 


3. c's 


b. 


. we 3 them to thee. 


33. 


B. 


3. c's. a' s. 


thou 8 them to as. 


16. 


C's. 


3. c's. 


b. 


. they 3 them to thee. 


84 


C. 


8, c*. a's. 


he i{ them to as. 


17. 


A. 


3. c. 


c. 


I 3 it for him. 


35. 


B's. 


3. c's. a's. 


hem t" tie. 


18. 


B. 


3. c. 


c. 


thou 3 it for him. 


3G. 


C's. 


3. c's. a's. 


they 8 them to us. 



10 § 



226 



ETYMOLOGY. 



37. A. 3. c. 

38. 0. 3. c. 

39. A's. 3. c. 

40. C's. 3. c. 



Vs. I 3 it to you. 
Vs. he 3 it to you. 
Vs. we 3 it to you. 
Vs. they 3 it to you. 



41. A. 3. c's. Vs. I 3 them to you 



0. 3. c's. 6' 
A's. 3. c's. Vs 
C's. 3. c's. Vs 
A. 3. c. c's. 



46. B. 3. c. 



he 3 them to you. 
we 3 them to you. 
they 3 them to you. 
I 3 it to them, 
thou 3 it to them. 



47. C. 3. c. 

48. A's. 3. c. 

49. B's. 3. c. 

50. C's, 

51. A. 

52. B. 

53. C. 

54. A's 

55. B's 



3. c 
3. 

3. 
3. 



c's. he 3 it to them. 

c's. we 3 it to them. 

c's. ye 3 it to them. 

c's. they 3 it to them. 
c's. c's. I 3 them to them, 
c's. c's. thou 3 them to them 
c's. c's. he 3 them to them, 
c's. c's. we 3 them to them, 
ye 3 them to them. 



56. C's. 3. c's. c's. they 3 them to them 

It would seem, from Howse's Cree Grammar, that the Cree 
language has three-thing verb -forms for all these 56 permu- 
tations, which are those that bring a third person in as a first 
object ; and since it offmarks an animate from an inanimate 
object, it has most likely 112 verb-forms for relations of persons. 

For the other permutations of the relations of the 6 persons 
in which A and B come in as first objects, neither the Basque 
nor American languages seem to have any forms. 

Many of such relations seldom happen, and the Basques 
and Indians may betoken the others of them by speech-formulee 
of other kinds. 

A. 3. b. b's., or ' I gave thee to you/ or ' I bought thee for 
you/ betokens a relation not likely to happen, and therefore 
not likely to need a verb-form. 

The three-thing relations are betokened in most of the 
tongues of Europe by pronouns in sundry case-forms; as, 

English, ' I gave it to you/ . . French, ' Je vous Fai donne ; ' 
and it is not a little puzzling to place the pronouns in their 
right idiom order. 

The best relation order would be that the subject should 
come first, and be followed by the first object, and then by 
the further object ; as, 

' /gave it you/ . . . ' we bought them for him;' 
which, if 1 stood for the subject, 2 for the first object, and 
3 for the further object, would be the order . . 1, 2, 3. 

But when we name the further object by a noun, our order 
is sometimes .... 1, 3, 2. 

1 1 gave him the book/ . . . { I bought him a toy ;' 
though, if we inset a preposition before the pronoun of the 
further object, our order is .... 1, 2, 3. 

' / gave a book to him/ ... ' I bought a horse for him. 3 



ETYMOLOGY. 227 

French, * Je le lui montrai/ ' Je kii montrai le livre.' 
12 3 13 2 

Italian, 'Datemelo/ i.e., Date-voi-me-lo. 

13 2 
English, ' Give it me/ 
12 3 



544. ADVERBS and PREPOSITIONS, or 
POSTPOSITIONS. 

A true adverb and a true preposition are both mode-words, 
or tokens of the modes of actions or predicates, with a 
difference between them, — that an adverb, is a one-thing 
mode-word or mode-token, and a preposition is a two-thing 
mode-word or mode-token. 

In the sentence ( John walked fast, or sees clearly,' or 
' the letter is well written/ the adverbs fast, clearly, well, 
betoken the mode of the actions walked, sees, written, among 
others of the same name, but do not want any noun after or 
with them ; so that they may stand in a sentence with only 
one thing, the subject, in it. 

In the sentence ' John walked from or into the house/ or 
f the letter was carried by a messenger/ the prepositions from, 
into, by, betoken the mode of the actions walk and carried, as 
to the objects house and messenger, and want a noun after or 
with them ; so that they stand in the sentence with two things, 
the subject and object. 

Yet many compound adverbs and prepositions of the form 
(5+1) are formula? of two things, as ' John walked with speed,' 
' the letter was written with elegance ;' of which form arc the 
Welsh yn dda, ' in good/ for well, and the French au-tour, 
'in the round/ 



545. ADVERBS. 

An adverb is a word that names the modes of actions and 
being of the same name. 

Most adverbs have been made from notional words, and are 
of sundry forms, 

Castren, in his Elements of Cheremissian Grammar, says, 
" Ut prepositioncs, ita ctiam multa adverbia, casus sunt no- 



228 ETYMOLOGY. 

minum ; " and Ganandri, in his Grammatica Lapponica, says, 
a Ablativus et casns locativus nominis facile adverbii naturam 
induunt." And nouns in the modal case in Greenlandish, very 
often — 'sehr haufig/ as Kleinshmidt says, — serve as adverbs. 

546. Form (1) and (1+.) 

The form (1+) is some case-form of a noun. 

Germ., theils, of part, partly; flugs, of flight, i.e. quickly; 
mittags, of noon, at noon ; nachts, of night, at night. 

These are possessive case-forms of nouns. 

Icel., stundum, at hours, at times, — dative case-form of stund; 
tffium, at times, often, — dative case-form of ti%. 

So Old English, whilom is the A.- Saxon hwilum, — the dative 
of hivil, time. 

So the Arabic adverbs, or rather adverb-nouns, are almost 
all of the form (1) ; as, 

aklon with prudence, prudently. 

azmon .... with purpose, purposely. 

Latin, foris. 

So in Lapponic. 

547 Form (1+.) 

Purposely, daily. 

Latin, (l-^atim), gradatim, from gradus ; paulatim, from 
paulum ; verbatim, from verbum. 

kuvvj^ov, doggishly; ovpavovde, heavenward; oupavcOe, from 
heaven. 

Persian, (1-j-onah), derstmonah . . . friendly. 

Turkish, (1+jlah), deljlegUah . . . fool-like, foolishly. 

548. Form (1+1). 

Hindoostanee, roz - rerz . . . . day-day, i. e. daily, 

Tonga, mamafa, heavy ; mamafa-ange, heavy-like, heavily ; 
ange-like. 

549. Form (1+2). 
Latin, nihilominus (naught less). 

550. Form (1+3). 





ETYMOLOGY. 


551. 


Form (1+4). 


552. 


Form (1+5). 


553. 


Form (2). 



229 



In many languages adjectives are taken into the office of 
adverbs. 

English, long, little ; ago, agone. 

Latin, parum, docte, falso. 

Welsh, da, good and well. 

Turkish, guizel, pretty, prettily ; eyui, good, well. 

Germ., gut, good, well. 

Spanish, pronto, ready, readily ; menos, less ; alto, high, 
highly; bajo, low, lowly; mat, bad, badly. 

Germ., hochstens, of the highest, at most; wenigstens, of 
the least, at least ; zweitens, of the second, secondly ; gewiss, 
sure, or surely. 

Icel., sdr-an, of sore, sorely ; harSan, of hard, hardly, (case- 
forms of sdr and har^S) ; mest, most and mostly. 

In Wendish, adjectives of the neuter form are adverbs. 

554. Form (2 + .) 

This is a very common form of adverbs of mode. 

English, (2+/?/), as badly, cruelly, darkly, greatly, highly, 
justly, lightly, rightly; and adverbs of order, firstly, secondly, 
thirdly, fourthly, fifthly, sixthly, seventhly. 

Latin, (2-\-*ter), (2+e), ~\ acriter, feliciter, magnifi center, 
(2+im), J decenter; strictim,divisim; male, 

badly ; valde, from validus, strongly or very. 

Greek, (2+wc), 6%£ug, 

Ital. and Span., (2-\-mente) , dolccmente. 

French, (2-\-ment), doucement. 

Icel., (2+«), viS-a, widely. 

Adverbs of repetition, as once, twice, thrice, — case-forms of 
one, two, three. 

Latin, quinquies, sexies, &c. 

In Mongolian, the cardinal with the ending da ; Magyar, 
the cardinal -\-da. 



230 ETYMOLOGIC. 

555. Form (2 + 1.) 

This was at first the formula of many adverbs* of time and 
place; such as, then, when, here, there, ivhere. They ire case- 
forms of pronouns formerly belonging to nouns now left out. 

In Anglo-Saxon the local case-form of he-o, this, was 
he-ere, hire; and ' hire stowe' meant f at this place/ whence, 
by ellipsis of ' stowe/ we have f here/ 

The local case-form of se-o or \a, that, was \a-ere, pare ; 
and 'J?3ere stowe ' was 'at that place;' whence, by ellipsis of 
' stowe/ we have the adverb f there/ 

The local case-form of se, that, was ¥>dm, ¥>dn, %dn; and 
1 )?6n timan ' was ' at that time/ whence, by ellipsis of ' timan/ 
we have the adverb ' then/ 

So, from cases of hwa, who or what, we have when and 
where; l ti§ hwsene tide/ at what time, ' when / l hwsere stowe/ 
at what place, ' where/ 

So hither, thither, and whither are formed of heo, this, \a, 
that, and hivd, what, and mean thisward, thatward, and 
whatward ; and hence, thence, and whence are genitive or 
originative case-forms of heo, \a, and hwd } and mean of or 
from this, that, and what place or time. 

How and xohy are also most likely case-forms of whd, what ; 
how, by what ; why, for what. 

So Ezguerra, in his Arte de la Lengua Bisaya, shows that 
the Bisaya pronouns this, that, serve as adverbs, here, there. 

556. Form (2 + 1). 

Yester-day, straight- ways, (straight-wise, straight-mode), 
always (all-wise, all-modes). 

Latin, eb (eoloco), there; quo (quo loco), where; qua (qua 
via or parte), where, in what part, or by what way; multb, 
paulb. 

Pridie (priore-die), postri-die (postero-die), hodie (hoc-die), 
qud-re, quo-modo, magn-opere (magno-opere) . 

Germ., einmal, one time, once ; zweimal, twice ; jederzeit, 
each time, always ; diesseits, of this side. 

Norse, allatima, all time, always ; annanweg, another way, 
otherwise ; all-staftar, all places, every where ; jafnsffies, even 
sides, side by side. 

Welsh, pa le, what place, where ; un-waith, one turn, once. 



ETYMOLOGY. 231 

Persian, ainjo, this place, here; onjcy, that place, there; 
kujo, what place, where; hurgiz, each time, always ; djgurbor, 
another time, i.e. again. 

Cree, tan-ispee, what time, i.e. when ; tan-itte, what place, 
i.e. where. 

Lapponic, daat (this), daasne (in this*), here; duot (that), 
duosne (in that*), there; gutt (what), gusne (in what), where. 

557. Form (2 + 3). 
Multifariam, (rnultum-for) . 

558. Form (2+5), (2+5+1). 

TTe have some adverbs of this form composed of a pronoun 
become an adverb, and a preposition ; as, hereafter, hereby, 
hereto, herein, herefrom, thereafter, thereby, thereto, therein, 
therefrom, whereto, wherein, wherefrom, hitherto, hitherward, 
hen ceforth, henceforicar d. 

Latin, quem-ad-modum, quam-ob-rem. 

559. Form (2 + 4). 
Any-where, some-where, no-where. 

560. Form (5). 
About, down, up. 

Latin, ante. post. Greek, cLvu, ivros. 

561. Form (4 + .) 
Downward, upward. 

562. Form (5+1). 

In-deed, per-chance (par-chance), perhaps (per or by hap) ; 
to-morrow, to-day. 

Form {a, for at, + 1). 

Aside, a-foot, a-head, a-sleep, a-board, ashore, a-ground. 

Italian, a capo, at the end; da capo, from the beginning; 
da banda, a-sidc; all-ora, at the time, then. 

Spanish, a-caso, perhaps; al-ruho, at the end; a-hor<< 
the time, then. 

French, en-fin. Norse, i-stah, instead. 



232 ETYMOLOGY. 

Irish, 50 j'iop, with, truth, truly ; an aba, by -cause, because ; 
an ball, on-the-spot, immediately. French, sur-le-champ. 

Hindoost., olhol, the state, immediately. Latin, stat-im, 
bolfil, in the act, immediately. 

Bretonne, en dro. French, au-tour. 

„ a gostez. „ a-cote. 

„ e ty, i.e. at house. „ chez. 

„ gand-primber, with readiness, readily. 

563. Form (5 + 2). 

At last ; by far. Germ., Bei weitem, by far. 

Welsh, yn-dda, in good, i.e. well; yn-fwyn, in kind, i.e. 
kindly. 

564. Form (5+3). 

565. Form (4+.) 
Upward, downward, forward, backward. 

Form (4 + 2). 
Latin, nimirum (ne mirum) . 

566. Form (4 + 5 + 2). 
Ital., Non di meno. 

567. Form (4 + 4). 
Germ., immerfort. 

Hindoost., jahon-jahon, where-where. 
Latin, quaqua, i.e. where-ever. 

568. Some adverbs are so worn down, that they no longer 
afford a clue to their notional forms or formation; as, now, 
oft, often, seldom, soon, late, yes, no, not. 

Latin, non. Persian, na, nah. Hindoostanee, nah. 

569. Form (4 + 5). 

There-on, there -in, there-of, here-by, where- by. 
Germ., dar-an, darin, darauf. 



ETYMOLOGY. 233 

570, PREPOSITIONS, POSTPOSITIONS, &c. 

Most of the prepositions, which are now only bare relational 
words, have been formed of old notional words, of which they 
have lost the meaning and much of the form; thus, before 
and behind, or fore and hind, are derived from words betoken- 
ing the notions of an animal running on and another, or a 
man running after it to catch it. 

(F*r), a Teutonic root, meaning to go on, is that of fore; 
and (h*ri\>) or (h*nt), Gothic, hirip-an, to catch or hunt, is the 
root of hind. 

So fore means the ' going on/ and hind means the f catch- 
ing / and before means ( by the going-place/ and behind ' by 
the catching-place/ 

From the root f*r comes also for, Dutch voor, Germ, fur, 
Goth, faur ; and far, the effect of going, and forth, in the 
direction of going, and first, meaning forest, the most going. 

From the same root, /*r, go, comes most likely f*r*m, go 
off, our word from ; Goth., fram ; Swedisl^/rarc ; Norse, fra ; 
and the Lat., prce, prater, pro, per, primus, (art. 107) ; and 
the Greek, 7rpo, irpog, %a.poL. 

From (h*nt) 'to catch/ comes most likely hunt, hound, 
hand, and the Lat. hend-o. 

The connection of for and prce is shown in the expressions 
"Non potuit eum videre prce lachrymis;" 'He could not 
see him for tears/ 

So in Arabic, the preposition before is kabla, a case-form 
of a noun, from kabala, ' to come to/ and means ' in the 
coming' direction. 

So the primary meaning of of, Ger. af, Lat. ab, Gr.axo, #V> 
seems to be that of a going off up from the earth ; while on, 
A. -Sax. on, an, Goth, ana, Greek clvol, seems to have borne 
the notion of a coming on down towards the earth ; so that 
we can rank under the same root of, up, Ger. auf, Goth, iup, 
Eng. ov-er, Goth, uf-ar, A.-Sax. of-er, Gr. UT-Jp, Lat. sup-er. 
Eng. op-en, Ger. off-en. 

Thence it seems likely that most of the pure rational pre- 
positions were at first tokens of the motions and relations 
that were so much in the mind of man in savage life, such as 

1st, the motion of an arrow up from the earth, as at a bird ; 

2nd, the motion of an arrow down to the earth ; 



23-i ETYMOLOGY. 

3rd, the motion of an animal or foe fleeing ; 

4th, the motion of a man or foe following the fleer ; 

5th , the act of a man coming against a man ; 

6th, the association of man with man, or animal with animal. 

571. The motion of an arrow upward from the earth affords 
two relations, that of upwardness and that of fromness as to 
the shooter and the earth. 

The root seems to be */, *p, (art. 107) . 

With the relation of upwardness we have up, Ger. auf, 
Goth, iup, Gr. eV/, Lat. ob, Eng. ov-er, Goth, uf-ar, A.-Sax. 
of-er, Norse yfir, Gr. uVfp, Lat. super, Sansc. up-ari, Pers. 
ab-er, Eng. after, Goth, afar ; and with the relation of from- 
wardness the Eng. of, off, Gr. u%b y hi, Lat. ab. 

Thence we may guess why ski and VKsp take different case- 
forms. 'Ex/ might take a wherefrom case of a thing (A) when 
it meant up, reckoning from (A) ; a where case-form of (A) 
when it meant up on (A) ; and an accusative case-form of 
(A) when it meant up towards (A) : i%i vv[og up of (on) the 
ship; iiri pvjy/m,rv/, up (without a motion) to the shore; tisl 
boLvuzQv, up (with a motion) to death. 

So uVfp may take a wherefrom case-form as meaning up, 
reckoning from, and an accusative case-form, as up (with a 
motion) over. 

572. The motion of an arrow down to the ground affords 
three relations; that of down-ness, that of to-ness to the 
shooter or ground, and that of back-ness, or a reverse motion. 

The root seems to be *n. 

To the relation down belongs under, Ger.unter, Nors. under. 

To the relation of to-ness belongs on, A.-Sax. on, an; Du. 
A.-Sax. Germ. Goth. Eng. Lat. in, Span. Fr. en, Port, em, 
Welsh yn, Norse, Dan. Swed. Irish i*, Gr. ev, sig, avu, 
Goth, ana ; Lat. ante, Goth, and, A.-Sax. o*^ without the n, 
(art. 130), Ger. ant, Gr. dfj,<pi? A.-Sax. ymb-e. 

To the relation of back-ness, or reverse motion, belong un, as 
in un-do ; Lat. in, of invisibilis ; Gr. av#, of «v£Ak«, I draw 
back; Goth. and. of and-bindan, to unbind; Ger. ant, of 
ant-wort, back-word, i.e. answer. 



ETYMOLOGY. 235 

The word end, Goth, andi (the back-turning point of the 
arrow's motion) , Gr. #vt/, seems to have been a noun mean- 
ing the reverse or back thing as a compensation or match. 

o^uKfxov dvri dpOaA/xov, an eye, the back-gift of an eye. 

573. The forward motion of a man or an animal seems to 
have been betokened by the root f*r, p*r, for one root; 
whence we may have the A.-Sax. far -an } Ger. fahr-en, to go, 
Eng. fare, price of going, farewell, go on well, Lat. fer-o. 

But f*r, p*r, while it means go, may be taken with a rela- 
tion from- wards or to-wards; and under the relation from-wards 
may belong from, fore, far, Gr. 7rpo, with a wherefrom case- 
form, as Trpo Oupwv, fore (reckoning) from the door. 

Tpo£, with a wherefrom case-form, means fore-from ; with a 
dative case-form, fore-to; and with an accusative case-form, 
fore- (with a motion or direction) towards. 

Kupa, with a wherefrom case-form, meant fore-from ; with 
a\vhereto case-form, fore- (without a motion) to; and with 
an accusative case-form, fore- (with a motion or direction) 
towards. 

So the Latin pro, fore-from ; prae, fore-to ; per, fore-through; 
prater, fore-by ; prope, propter, fore-towards. 

574. The coming of man to man seems betokened by the 
root *t, *d, **.... at, ad, to. 

575. The association of man with man seems betokened by 
the roots s*m, s*n, m*t, &c. Germ, and Sansc. sam, together ; 
Goth, samana; Eng. same; Gr. <7uv; Lat. cum, con; Gr. i^eroc. ; 
Goth. mi\ ; Ger. mit. 

576. It often happens in languages with some case-forms 
that, when a case-form of a noun is given with a preposition, 
the case-form may betoken one relation and the preposition 
another; as, ' super lapide/ on a stone; r super lapidem/ to 
on a stone; the accusative case-form showing the motion 
to (the place) on a stone, and super the place on it. 

" Brf Is ii«T "lluiuM 6p£oov t 
'He went down from the Idaean hills;' 
where the genitive case-form betokens the fromward motion, 
and nura the downward motion, for aaru with an accusative 



236 



ETYMOLOGY. 



case-form would mean towards; aar cturovg xlev dp£, 'he 
always looked toward them.' 

So, fV/ rxg fivpcug . . up to the skins. 

1 2 12 

ncipoi fiuaiheog . . . fore from the king. 

1 2 

irctpci ficitriXecc . . . fore to the king. 
] 2 

Again, a man may die from many causes : he may die from 
a disease ; he may die willingly, giving his life a ransom for 
his father, or he may die for his fatherland. And in either of 
these cases, whether he may die from a disease, for his father, 
or for England, his disease, his father, or his fatherland is 
the wherefrom of his dying ; and the noun of the disease, the 
father, or the fatherland, may be given in Greek or Latin in 
the wherefrom case-form. But to die from a disease would 
most likely become vtq vogov UTobuveTv ; to die for one's 
father, vnep tov %UTpbg ol%- ; to die for one's fatherland, 
*ept «rijj %cirpi$og ol%- ; where the case-form of the noun 
betokens the relation of cause, and the preposition the rela- 
tions of power between it and the dier. If a man dies from 
a disease, he dies under its power ; if he dies willingly for his 
father, he does not die under his father's power, for his father 
is in his, and he dies with power over him ; and if he dies 
fighting for his fatherland, he is not under its power, since he 
chooses to die for it, nor is his fatherland under his power, 
since he cannot singly save it ; so that he does not die under 
or over it, but about it or for it. Hence, when our Lord says 
(John x. 15), that "He lays down His life for the sheep," 
He says, tv\v 4/u%^v (jlov T»'Qv|fx/ vzsp tuv %po^a,T(av i f I lay 
down my life over the sheep/ because they are under His 
power. 

Therefore different relations may be shown by sundry pre- 
positions with the same case-form ; or by different case-forms 
with the same preposition. 

577. Some Greek prepositions may take either an origina- 
tive or accusative case-form, by articles 262 and 265. 

Zik . . fo* avtopujov o bcivaTog . . . wherefrom. 

to £#/3/3#tov $tot tov avApwxov . . . objective. 



ETYMOLOGY. 237 

iiri . . M rov nuKov Xeyoov KcuSog . . . wherefrom. 

eKEipzTO 7GV$ 'AbvjVuiGv; v\\g eV olvtov 6pyv\g Tupa- 
b.V€iv , . . objective. 
nctTct, . ToKvg eiruivog r,v y.cctol Tv\g v^ETspug woKeug . origin. 

ol y.cl§ v%epo%ViV vo^oi . . . objective. 
irpbg . Trpo; dvlpbg i%bpov inKpepuv tj}v %J/vjpov . wherefrom. 

%pbg 'Pufxxiovg {LOL%zo~bcii . . . objective. 
a,{L<pl . ufLpi oLcrepoov v t ypa<p>\ . . . ■wherefrom. 

vopoi k\L(pi ri w.cibs(TTUT£g . . . objective. 

ol\l$\ ToKiog ohovffi . round from (not at) the city. 
xfLQ w/xo/f . . . round at his shoulders, 
a'jxp' oCKa. . . . round towards the sea. 

578. Our preposition against, A. -Sax. agen, is formed from 
a-gdn, on-gdn, to go at ; and beyond is from be-geond, which 
may mean by -going, from be, by, and a participle of gdn. 

By is believed to have come out of bu-an, to dwell ; and 
with formerly meant against. 

579. Latin, coram, coirim? trans, trahens, leading; ultra, 
olle trahens, leading there; citra, cis-trahens, leading here; 
contra, cum-trahens ; intra, in-trahens. 

infra, in-fero ; juxta, junxta, (jungo). 
pone, post, (pono). 

580. Form (1), (1+.) 

This form, which is a shortened shape of (4-f-l), is some 
case-form of a noun, or a noun with some ending. 

Latin, circum, circa, circiter, in a ring, round, from circus, 
Gr. Hipuog, a circle ; foris, e /oris, out of doors. 

Germ., mittels, {i.e. of the middle,) between, among. 

Norse, kring-um, locative case-form of kring, ring ; round. 

Ital., senza, without ; by aphseresis for assenza, absence. 

So in Hawaii place-prepositions, and in Chercmissian most 
postpositions, are case -forms of nouns. 

581. Form (2). 
Ital., vicino (di, a), near. 



238 etymology. 

582. Form (3), ( 3 + .) 

Latin, clam, cela-im ? from celo ; palam, pala-im, from palo; 
secus, secundum, from sequor ; versus, from verto. 

583. Form (5 + 1), (5+2). 

This is a great prepositional formula of languages, in many 
of which prepositions are compound words made up of a 
relational word and a noun ; so that when another noun comes 
after a preposition of the form (5+1), it is the possessive case 
to the noun (1) im bodied in the preposition, as if we were to 
say ( in the neighbourhood of London/ and take intheneigh- 
bourhood for a single preposition, which would govern London 
in the possessive case. 

Of these forms there are many prepositions in French, in 
which language the spaces by a thing are betokened by words 
that are nouns, or adjectives belonging to nouns understood, 
the spaces above, below, near, and round being called the above, 
the below, the near, and the round of the thing j and another 
thing, in either of those spaces, is said by the compound 
preposition to be in the above (au-dessus), in the below (au- 
dessous) , at the near (au-pres) , at the round (au-tour) of or to 
the thing ; and a motion through it is said to be in the trans- 
verse (au-travers) of it. 

Eng., below, by-the-low; beneath, by-the-down; between, 
by-twain, i.e. by two; among, A. -Sax. on-menge, on-gemang, 
i.e. in a crowd; within, A. -Sax. iv'ti&innan, by the in; without, 
A. -Sax. wti&titan, by the out; beside, by-side; baft, A.-Sax. 
be-ceftan, by-hind, behind; along, A.-Sax. andlang, by length; 
above, A.-Sax. on-be-ufan, on bufan, on-by-up. 

Ital., in-torno, in a ring, i.e. round ; appie, i.e. ad pedem, 
under ; allato, ad-latus, beside. 

Span., en-cima, in the top; a-cerca, at the ring, round; 
enfrente, in front ; al rededor, in the vicinity ; allado, at side, 
beside. 

Port., porcima, a~cima, em-cima, by-top, at-top, on-top. 

Fr., au-milieu, at the midst ; au-bout, at the end. 

Germ., anstatt, in-place, instead; ausserhalb, outer-side, 
without ; innerhalb, inner-side; entlang, against the long, along. 

Icel., i-sta^, in-stead ; d-meftal, at midst, amid ; dmoti, 
at meeting, against. 



ETYMOLOGY. 239 

"Welsh, am-yylch, in-ring, i.e. round; ar hyd, on the length, 
i.e. along, throughout. 

Irish, aV-pabmaij-e, in presence, i.e. before, 
a-j-comne, at meeting, i.e. against, 
an-agaib', in face, i.e. against, before, 
a b-timceall, in- ring, i.e. about, round, 
Russ., vmesto, in place, i.e. instead, 
vokrmge, in ring, i.e. round, 
vdole, on length, along. 
Pers., oz bahr, from love, i.e. for the sake, 
dur zjr, in the low, i.e. below, 
dur mjon, in midst, i.e. among, between. 
Of this form (5+1) or (1), the preposition being often 
omitted, are many prepositions in Hindoostanee. They are 
Sanscrit, Hindee, Persian, and Arabic nouns, and take a 
genitive case of the noun (1). 

Bretonne, en dro French, au-tour. 

„ a gostez „ a-cote. 

„ e ty „ chez. 

Hebrew, s 2B ~b^> at the face, i.e. before. 

These prepositions are found in Basque, as aurrUan, in-fore, 
before ; in Armenian and Japanese ; and Romaunt, as e»- 
apres, in adpresso. 

584. Form (5 + 3). 

Prepositions formed of a preposition and verb-root : 

Latin, ad-versus, ad-verto ; contra, cum-tra, cum-traho ; 
infra, in-fero ; intra, in-traho. 

585. Form (5+5). 

Compound prepositions formed of two prepositions : 
Italian, av-dnti; Latin, ad-ante; S^axi.de-l'ante, from before ; 

Port, di-ante, of before ; A. -Sax. bufan, be-ufan, by-up ; bceftan, 

be-ceftan, by-hind. 

So to-fore and a'fore (on-fore) are still in use. 

586. Form (5 + 4). 

Compounds of a preposition and an adverb : 

Ital., di la, of there, i.e. beyond; di qui, of here, i.e. 
this side. 



240 ETYMOLOGY. 

587. In breath-sound speech, postpositions are uttered with 
their nouns as case-endings, although they may be given 
asunder from them in type language. 

In Hindoostanee ' Gherrern ss ' is mostly written with the 
postposition off from the noun, and yet it is uttered the 
same as it would be if it were written l Ghoronse ;' while in 
Turkish, den is an owned postposition, and yet is written on. 
to the noun as a case-ending of the ablative case-form, as 
otlerden, from horses, 

We may therefore conclude that case- endings were for- 
merly free postpositions, which have shifted their forms with 
different forms of nouns, and are at length taken only as parts 
of them. 

It may be answered, that as the case-ending of the same 
case of one declension is different from that of another, in- 
asmuch as the genitive case-ending of musa is <b, and that 
of nubes is is, so both of them would not have sprung from 
the same postposition; but it is pretty clear that the geni- 
tive case- ending of Latin nouns in a was once as, as in pater- 
familias, the length of the a betokening a crasis of ai, so 
that its first form seems to have been familia*is, with the 
postposition is of nub-is ; and the a of the ablative case-ending 
is as clearly a crasis of a-i or a-e, with the postposition e or i 
of nub-e, as the genitive gradus and the ablative gradu con- 
tain erases of u-is, u-e in gradu-is and gradu-e. 

So in Turkish, the postposition den, from, becomes ten after 
the noun at, horse (art. 127), atden, atten. 



588. CONJUNCTIONS. 

Conjunctions are words that betoken the relations of sen- 
tences, or the like or sundry relations of nouns to the same 
predicate; as, 'You have not asked, and will not receive/ 
f The boy and girl ask/ ' The boy or girl asked/ 

589. Some conjunctions are called copulative, as they be- 
token the same relation of two or more nouns to the same 
predicate ; as, c The boy and girl read/ ' The boy and. girl were 
chided/ betoken the same relation of agents to the predicate 
read, and the same relation of patients to the predicate were 
chided. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



241 



590. Some conjunctions are discriminative,, as they betoken 
a sundry relation of two or more nouns to the same predicate ; 
as the sentences ' the boy or girl reads/ and ' the boy or girl 
was chided/ betoken one, and not the other, with the relation 
of agent to the predicate read ; and one, but not the other, 
with the relation of patient to the predicate was chided. 

591. The copulative conjunctions betoken free or leading 
relations of two predicates : 

and 



both 

since 

because 

if 
when 



1 



y ye asked, <j 



therefore 
therefore 
so 
then 

lso 

Ye received, for ye asked. 

Ye asked, that ye might receive. 



}> ye received. 



The discriminative conjunctions betoken adverse relations of 
two or more predicates : 

Though ye asked, yet ye did not receive. 
Ye asked not, but ye received. 



11 



242 



SYNTAX. 

592. Breath-sound language is of three elements, — (1) 
things, (2) thoughts, (3) words. 

593. Type language is of four elements, — (1) things, (2) 
thoughts, (3) words, (4) types or letters. 

594. Thoughts are tokens of things, words of thoughts, 
letters of words. 

595. The lettering of words is spelling, and the wording of 
thoughts is Syntax. 

596. A thought worded is a proposition or sentence ; as, 
' the boy plays.' 

597. A proposition is of two limbs ; a limb with the name 
of a thing, and a limb with the wording of some thought of 
it j as, ' the boy plays/ 

598. The thing named by the first limb, as 'the boy,' is 
called the subject or nominative case; and the thing worded 
of it in the other limb is called the predicate, or attribute. 

599. In some languages either limb of a proposition may 
be set before the other, as in Latin, ' saluberrima res est tem- 
perantia/ or ' temperantia est saluberrima res/ In English, 
however, the subject is mostly set before its predicate, as ( the 
boy plays.' 

600. A subject may be of a single name, as ' birds walk ;' 
or of more names than one, as ' birds and quadrupeds walk.' 

601. The predicate may be of one name, as ' birds walk;' 
or of more names than one, as ' birds walk and fly/ 

602. The subject may be an action, or being, or a proposition; 
as, ' to rise early is healthy ;' ' to be good is to be happy/ 

603. The subject may be indefinite, as 'something has hap- 
pened;' 'things are dear;' 'somebody may come;' ' they {i.e. 
some people, or people in general) say there will be war.' 

Thence the Latin rule " Aliquando oratio est verbo nomi- 
nativus ; ut, ' Ingenuas didicisse fidelitcr artes, 
Emollit mores/" — Ovid. 

Greek, to wotfiv oLpevui, 'Sw/jpecrcLTOV itriv. — Aristot. 



SYNTAX. 243 

604. Propositions with manifold subjects or predicates, are 
often elliptic forms of as many propositions which they 
would make with the outcast subject or predicate ; as, ' birds 
and quadrupeds walk/ is < birds walk and quadrupeds walk ; ' 
' birds walk and fly/ is ' birds walk and birds fly/ 

' The boy and girl are cousins ' is a true proposition with a 
twofold subject, since the predicate 'are cousins/ is that of 
both the boy and girl together, and not of one of them singly. 

The case of the subject is the nominative. 

605. Pronouns are, by right, of the same number as the 
nouns for which they stand ; as, ' 1 have seen my brother, and 
told him (not them) what you say/ Yet this rule is sometimes 
disregarded, as in Phil. ii. 3, ' Let each (man) esteem other 
better than themselves.' 

606. Relative Propositions. 

A relative proposition is a less one given with one of the 
limbs of a main one, and with one of the limbs or things of 
the main one for one of its own limbs or things ; as ' the boy 
(who tells lies) will not be believed/ where 'who tells lies' is 
a relative proposition, with the subject of the main one, 'the 
boy/ for its own subject. 

' The boy has told a lie, which is inexcusable/ where 
' which is inexcusable ' is a relative proposition, with the pre- 
dicate of the main one, 'has told a lie/ for its subject. 

In Mongolian, for want of a relative pronoun, the place of 
the relative pronoun and the verb of the relative clause is 
taken by a participle. The speech-form ' the girl who danced^ 
is ' the having- danced girl/ ' The book which thou gavest me/ 
is ' thy to-me-given book/ ' The apple which fell from the 
tree/ is ' the from -the- tree-fallen apple/ 

This speech-form often takes place of the relative one in 
other languages, as in Greek, A/«v, 6 Aiovvinov enficLXuv, ' Dion, 
the-having-outcast Dionysius/ for ' who cast out Dionysius/ 

' The boy has broken the bat which he made/ where ' which 
he made' is a relative proposition with an objective thing — 
' the bat/ but not either of the limbs of the main proposition 
for a thing of its predicate. 

' This is the tree which I planted/ where ' which I planted ' 
is a relative proposition, with a subjective thing of the main 
one for a thing of its predicate. 



244 SYNTAX. 

The subject, if not a share of the predicate, of a relative pro- 
position, is sometimes left out ; as, 'a boy given to lying is 
mistrusted/ which means 'a boy who is given to lying is 
mistrusted/ 

607. ' 1 have sold the horse which threw me/ where ' which 
threw me ' is a relative proposition, with a thing of the main 
one — 'the horse/ for its subject. 

608. A limb or thing of a main proposition taken into a 
relative one, is named by a relative pronoun; as, 'the boy 
who tells lies will not be believed; 'the man rises early, 
which is healthy;' ' this is the tree which I planted;' 'this is 
the man whom I esteem/ 

609. A relative proposition, with its relative pronoun for 
the whole predicate of a main proposition, bears a meaning 
different from that which it would bear with its relative pro- 
noun standing for only a thing of the predicate of the main 
proposition; as, ' [he told (a lie)] which is inexcusable/ 

If the relative pronoun which stands for the whole predicate 
' told a lie/ the proposition means that, the telling of a lie is 
inexcusable ; but if it stands for ' lie ' only, it may mean that 
a lie of that kind is inexcusable. 

610. The thing, or subject, or predicate for which a relative 
pronoun stands is called its antecedent. 

611. When the pronoun of the relative proposition stands 
only for a thing, and not for either of the limbs, of the main 
proposition, the relative proposition is a kind of definition of 
the thing which it takes from the main proposition, and may 
be taken as a part of that limb of the main proposition from 
which it takes a thing; as, 'the man (that tilleth his land) 
shall have bread/ where the relative proposition ' that tilleth 
his land' defines the man or the subject of the main pro- 
position, and may be taken as a share of the subject. 

[The man (that trusteth in his own heart)] is a fool. 

' Blessed is the man to whom the Lord imputeth no sin/ 
[The man (to whom the Lord imputeth no sin)] is blessed. 

' Blessed is the man whose unrighteousness is forgiven/ 
[The man (whose unrighteousness is forgiven) ] is blessed. 

[The tree (which I planted)] is dead. 

I [have planted the tree (which I bought)]. 



SYNTAX. 245 

612. When a relative pronoun is in the nominative case, 
its verb should be of the person and number of its ante- 
cedent; as, 'thou who bringest glad tidings ;' f the tidings 
which have been brought/ 

613. Relative pronouns should be of the gender, number, 
and person of their antecedents ; as, ' this is the man whom 
I esteem;' 'that is the tree which I planted/ 

Relative pronouns are not of need in the case of their 
antecedents, for the relative may be in one case while its 
antecedent is in another; as, ' I am the man whom you have 
wronged ;' ' I have found the sheep which had strayed/ 

Sometimes a relative is drawn out of its own case-form, by 
a power of association, called attraction, into that of its ante- 
cedent; as, 

' Judice quo (quern) nosti, populo/ — Hor. 
( Hac quidem caussa, qua (quam) dixi tibi/ — Ter.Heaut. i,l, 35. 
,c TTfp ineivuv $s uv etheye llAaTwv. — JElian. 

614. In English the pronouns have not sundry forms for 
the betokening of the singular and plural or dual numbers, 
as pronouns have in some other tongues. We say ' the man, 
or men, who worked ;' ' the tree, or trees, which fell/ 

615. When the antecedent to a relative pronoun is a limb 
of a main sentence, it should be of the neuter gender ; as, 
' (he rises early,) which is healthy/ ' (In tempore veni,) quod 
rerum omnium est primum/ 

616. In languages of which the pronouns have not sundry 
forms for the betokening of genders and numbers, it is de- 
sirable, for the sake of clearness of speech, that the relative 
pronoun should come close after its antecedent. 

If a boy should mean to tell another that Alfred had sold, 
for a shilling, a bat which William had given him, then the 
proposition 'Alfred has sold the bat for a shilling which 
William gave him last week ' would most likely mislead the 
mind of the other boy, as he might refer 'which William 
gave him ' to the shilling instead of the bat. 

617. Much of the syntax of case has been already given 
under the articles 272 and other following ones, on the shif't- 
ings of case. 

Case-shiftings are figures of speech of the kind which 



246 



SYNTAX. 



Quinctilian calls ' figures of words ' (figura verborum) ; and 
the Romans of his time often took the dative case-form for 
their forefathers' accusative, and the wherewith case for the 
genitive of the former generations. He says " Verborum vero 
figura* et mutatae sunt semper, et utcunque valuit consuetudo, 
mutantur, Itaque si antiquum sermonem nostro comparemus, 
pene jam quicquid loquimur, figura est : ut huic rei invidere, 
non ut omnes veteres, et Cicero prsecipue, hanc rem : et in- 
cumbere illi, non in ilium ; et plenum vino non vini : et huic, 
non hunc adulari, jam dicitur, et mille alia." 

1 
10. 

The Greeks had a speech-form with an ordinal number for 
the agent, instead of a cardinal one with an associative case, 
so as to shun the use of the associative case. 

Instead of the speech form " Socrates sailed in a boat with 
three others," the Greeks chose another, " Socrates sailed in 
a boat, himself being the fourth." 

The part of a body at or against or of which an agent acts 
on the whole of it, is taken by us as in the place-case or dative 
case ; and while the Greeks mostly took it as in the genitive, 
and the Latins as in the accusative*, we say ' to lead by the 
hand/ ' to take by the throat/ ' to hold by the tail/ To lead 
ivith the hand is to lead with the leader's hand, but to lead by 
the hand is to lead by the led one's hand. 

The part of a body at which an agent acts for the whole of 
it, may be taken as a place-case with the whole as the accu- 
sative to the action, or as an accusative with the whole as 
possessive of it; as, f He struck John (ace.) on the head' (place) ; 
or ' He struck John's (poss.) head ' (ace.) 

The Mongolian language is rather markworthy for its par- 
ticiple speech-forms, instead of relative ones, with the relative 
pronoun; but the Bisaya language of the Philippine islands 
is still more worthy of the philologist's insight, as it shows 
how much a tongue may do with very few, only two, case- 
forms, and hardly any other noun case-tokens. 

In Bisaya, as in Hawaii and some other Polynesian lan- 
guages, the root- word is a verb, noun, and adjective without 
shifting of form. 

For nouns the Bisaya has only two fore-words, and for pro- 
nouns two forms, for all cases but the nominative. One of 
them is for the genitive, and the other for what is called the 
dative, though an old Spanish grammarian says ' El dativo 



SYNTAX. 247 

sirve al accusativo y ablativo/ — ' the dative serves for the accu- 
sative and ablative ;' and therefore the dative fore-word or 
form could not ofFmark a man's going to a house from his 
going from it ; nor could it offmark either the where from the 
wherewith case, or any other but the nominative and genitive. 
What can a language do with such straitness of case-tokens ? 

It has three word-forms, called the three passive forms of 
the verb, with which it betokens many of the relations that 
in other languages are shown by case-tokens of the noun. 
Sorat, write, writing. 
' I-sorat mo ining manga tauo/ 

(Be) the-written-to (thing) of you those people. 
'Be those people the written-to of you/ i.e. the object of 
your writing ; or, ' write to those people/ 
By this speech-form the dative is kept out. 

I Ig-sorat co ini/ 

f The to-be- written (thing) of me is that/ 
' That is my to-be-written (thing) ;' 
i.e. ( 1 shall or must write that/ 
By this speech-form the accusative is kept out. 

Here ' I-sorat' is the passive of the further object, and 
' Ig-sorat ' the passive of the first object. (Art. 537.) 

' Siya an acun tinotubu-an/ 
' He is the wherewith-brought-up of me/ 
i.e. ' I was brought up with him/ 
By this speech-form, with the place passive-form of the verb tino- 
tubu-an, the associative noun-case is avoided. 

' I-cohamo aco sin tobig/ 

I I (am) the-to-be-drawn-for of water;' 
i.e. c Draw me some water/ 

With this speech-form the objective case is not brought in. 

By the relation-forms of the verb and the speech-forms 
which they afford, they shun many cases of things for which 
they have no case-tokens. 

The singular powers of the languages of the Philippine 
islands have taken the attention of a German writer on the 
Hawaii Chamisso. He says of the Tagalist tongue : 

" By the four forms of the Tagalist verb (one active and 
three passive, like those of the Bisaya,) the subject, the object, 
the end, or the instrument, or even the place of the action, 
can be put in any chosen order, and in the nominative case." 



248 SYNTAX. 

618. PARENTHESIS. 

A parenthesis is a proposition or clause placed within a 
sentence ; as, 'I hear (and I partly believe it) that there are 
divisions among you;' where (and I partly believe it) is a 
parenthesis. 

619. A parenthesis may be transposed from within a sen- 
tence to its end ; as ' I hear that there are divisions among 
you, and I partly believe it/ 

620. A proposition will be of full meaning without the 
parenthesis which may be within it ; as, 'I hear * that there 
are divisions among you/ 

621. Transposition of parenthetical clauses is useful for the 
discovery of breaches of concord of the verb and its nomina- 
tive case, and other cases of bad syntax. 

The verb of a singular nominative case which is followed 
by a parenthetical noun in another case, is sometimes wrongly 
of the plural form, as if it were the verb of the nominative 
and parenthetical noun ; as, ' the house (with the goods) were 
burnt/ Here ' with the goods ' is a parenthetical clause, by 
the transposition of which we have 'the house were burnt 
(with the goods,) J — a clear mistake. Yet this construction is 
found in Latin, so that a verb does not always agree with its 
nominative case in number ; as, 

' Deucalion cum consorte tori numina montis adorant' 

Ovid Met. i. 

In the sentence ' Alfred was more lively (but not so dili- 
gent) as John/ ' but not so diligent ' is a parenthetical clause. 
By transposition of it we have ' Alfred was more lively as 
John, but not so diligent/ — a false construction, since more 
requires the correlative than instead of as, though 'not so 
diligent ' requires as ; we may therefore say 'Alfred was more 
lively, but less diligent than John/ or 'Alfred was more lively 
than John, but less diligent/ 

622. Parentheses are not desirable, but it is desirable for 
the sake of clearness that things should be worded in their 
true order; and as this end, with some others, cannot be 
gained without them, they are allowed. 'Alfred, having 
gathered his faithful Saxons, overcame the Danes, and gave 
his land peace/ ' Having gathered his faithful Saxons/ is 
a parenthetical clause, which may be placed elsewhere, as 
'Alfred overcame the Danes, having gathered his faithful 



SYNTAX. 249 

Saxons/ — a bad construction, as it names the later action, 
that of overcoming the Danes, before the earlier one, that of 
gathering his Saxons. 

623. Single Propositions. 

Single Subject. 

A verb mostly agrees with its nominative case in person 
and number ; as, ' I stand ; ' ' thou sittest ; ' ' the boys run/ 

624. In languages which, like English, have not sundry 
case-forms for the nominative and accusative cases, they are 
betokened by the order of the noun and verb. 

In English the nominative noun is usually given before the 
verb, and the accusative after it; as, 'the horse threw the 
groom ;' ' the groom threw the horse/ 

A second person would hardly understand, from the sen- 
tence 'the groom the horse threw/ whether the groom or 
horse did the action ' threw/ 

625. When a predicate is bound by a conjunction or to one, 
out of more singular nouns than one, its verb is mostly of the 
singular form ; as, f Alfred or John is going into the town/ 

This rule, however, does not seem to hold good at all times. 
It does not hold in the Greek of James ii. 15, 16, nor of 
Matt, xviii. 8. 

' 'Eav $e &$e\<pog y ocleK(pv{ yujxvo/ vVap%«07, &c. 

* If thy hand or thy foot offend thee, cut them off and cast 
them from thee." 

626. Manifold Subject. 

In a predicate of two or more singular nouns connected by 
the copulative conjunction and, their verb is in English mostly 
of the plural form ; as, 'Alfred and John are good boys/ 

Yet, in Latin, a verb to two singular subjects is often of the 
singular form, as the verb of each taken singly ; as, ' puer 
et puella scribit/ 

627. A plural pronoun standing for a first and second or 
third person, should be of the first person j as, ' you (2) and 
/ (I) must settle it between us.' ' I (1) and my horse (3) have 
tired ourselves.' 

628. A plural pronoun standing for a second and third 

11 6 



250 SYNTAX. 

person is of the second person ; as, { you (2) and Alfred (3) 
go to school ; do you not ? ' Or, 

629. A verb to two conjoined subjects of two sundry per- 
sons, whether 1st and 2nd, 1st and 3rd, or 2nd and 3rd, 
mostly takes the form of the person marked by the lowest 
number, whether it may be 1, 2 or 3 ; as, 

' Si tu (2) et Tullia (3), lux nostra, valetis (2), Ego (1) et 
suavissimus Cicero (3) valemus (1)/ 

630. Personal pronouns should be of the gender of the 
nouns for which they stand ; as, 'the boy has learnt his lesson ;' 
' the girl has done her work/ 

631. In a predicate of a collective noun, or the name of a 
body of individual things, its verb is sometimes of the sin- 
gular and at other times of the plural form. 

It should be of the singular number when the predicate 
would be true only of the body, and not of the individuals ; 
as, ' the meeting was large/ The individuals of it were not 
large. 

The verb should be of the plural form when the predicate 
would be true rather of the individuals than the body; as, 
1 the family are now reconciled one to another/ 

The verb may be either of the singular or plural number 

when the predicate would be true both of the body and its 

individuals ; as, ( the council was, or were, divided in opinion/ 

Latin, c Pars abiere/ ' Quserit pars semina flammse/ — Viry, 

Thence most likely arises the Greek construction of a noun 
of the neuter, and sometimes of the masculine or feminine 
plural-form, with a verb of the singular form ; as, 
c ?w# rpe%ei.' f o,%utui 6[L(pu} /xfAewv.' 

632. Twofold Propositions. 

Art. 498, &c. 

Twofold propositions are two single propositions, so by- 
holding one to another by meaning as well as by a conjunc- 
tion, that one is not of its full meaning without the other ; as, 
1 if ye ask, ye shall receive/ 

633. The leading proposition, as 'if ye ask/ is called the 
protasis or fore-speech ; and the following proposition, as 
' ye shall receive/ is called the apodosis or after-speech. 



SYNTAX. 251 

634. There are 5 forms of twofold propositions : 

1st, fore and aft propositions, both sure or fast; as, ' be- 
cause ye asked, ye received/ 

2nd, fore, unsure or loose ; aft, sure or fast ; as, ' if ye 
ask, ye shall receive/ 

3rd, fore, sure or fast ; aft, unsure or loose ; as, e I wish 
that it may be a fine day/ 

4th, fore, hypothetical ; aft, sure or fast ; as, e if I had not 
come unto them, they would not have had sin/ 

5th, fore, sure or fast j aft, hypothetical ; as, ' I wish that 
it were a fine day/ 

635. All propositions connected in twos by conjunctions 
are not by-holding propositions, and therefore are not to be 
reckoned with twofold propositions ; as, ( the girl rides, and 
the boy walks/ These propositions are of sundry kinds : 

Adverse, ' Although the girl rides, yet the boy walks/ 
Comparative, i The girl reads as much as the boy writes/ 
Time and place, ' "When the girl reads, then the boy writes/ 
' Where the girl reads, there the boy writes/ 
Disjunctive, ' Either it is day, or it is night/ 

636. When the after-speech is the subject or object of the 
fore-speech, the twofold proposition may be converted into a 
single one by the casting of the verb of the after-speech into 
the infinitive form, with its nominative case, if it has one, in 
the accusative form ; as, 

' I know (that) John is a good boy.' 
' I know John to be a good boy/ 

' Before these days rose up Theudas, boasting (that) he was 
somebody/ 

' Before these days rose up Theudas, boasting himself to be 
somebody/ — Acts v. 36. 

' I am glad to know (that) you arc come back safe/ 

Latin, ( Te rediisse incolumem gaudeo/ 

' I went into the garden (that) I might gather a nosegay/ 

' I went into the garden to gather a nosegay/ 

637. A protasis or fore-speech may be set before or after its 
apodosis or after-speech, for twofold propositions are not 



252 ^ SYNTAX. 

called fore and after, or protasis and apodosis, from their order 
in language, but from the order of their predicates ; as, 

( If ye ask, ye shall receive/ 

( Ye shall receive if ye ask/ 

' I hope that it may be fine weather/ 

1 That it may be fine weather I hope/ 

638. In English, when the after-speech is of undefined future 
time, its verb may be of the indefinite present tense-form, 
while that of the fore-speech is of the future tense-form ; as, 

' I will mock when your fear cometh ; when your fear cometh 
as desolation, and (when) your destruction cometh as a 
whirlwind/ 

1 We will skate when it freezes/ 

639. The after-speech to one fore-speech may be the fore- 
speech to a third ; as, 

c If a tree brings forth good fruit (1), then it shall be 
purged (2) , that it may bring forth more fruit (3) / 

1 Whenever we sin (1), then we become more the slaves of 
sin (2), so that it is harder for us to do good (3)/ 

* When the sailors saw the tokens (1), then they reefed their 
sails (2), because they knew a storm was at hand (3)/ 

640. To give a more lively conception of actions in narra- 
tive language, they are often named by present tense-forms 
instead of past tense-forms ; as, 

" The first day of the week cometh Mary Magdalene early 
unto the sepulchre, and seeth the stone taken away from the 
sepulchre. Then she runneth, and cometh to Simon Peter," &c. 

Here the present tense-form cometh, seeth, and runneth are 
given for came, saw, and ran. 

641. In English, two negatives cancel each other, and make 
a sentence affirmative ; as, 

{ Neither is he not blameworthy/ i.e. he is blameworthy. 
( His goodness is not imrewarded/ i.e. his goodness is rewarded. 

In Greek, two or three negatives are given in propositions 
of strong negation; as, 

4 Oblevore ovUv ov fx-vj yivvfcai twv JioyTwv/ — Demosth. 



SYNTAX. 253 

And in A. -Saxon, two or three negatives come into a sen- 
tence without making it affirmative ; as, 
( Ne geseah nsefre nan man God/ not saw never no man God. 
1 No man ever saw God/ — John iii. 

642. In English, adverbs which modify adjectives are mostly 
set before them, as ' Alfred is a very good boy;' and adverbs 
which modify verbs are mostly set after them, as ' Alfred 
behaved well.' 

643. As being cannot go over from an agent to a patient, 
the verb To be cannot cast a noun into an accusative case, and 
has the same case after it as before it. 

644. Nouns and pronouns connected in the same relation 
by the copulative conjunction and, are in the same case-form ; 
as, ' he and she are cousins ;' ' they knew him and me at school/ 

645. ELLIPSIS. 

An ellipsis is the outleaving, from a sentence, of a word, or of 
words, which a first person may believe a second to understand. 

646. Nouns. 

People.. f Greek > **rt ( )• , 

\ Those ( ) who think so are mistaken. 

Men . . . A thousand foot ( ) and five hundred horse ( ). 

Man . . . Give the men a shilling each ( ) . 

House . . I dined at my uncle's ( ). 

rp lU i >I went to see St, Paul's ( ). 

Latin, . . r Ubi ad ( ) Dianse veneris/ — Virg. 
(See Latin rule, "Ponitur interdum genitivus tantum," &c.) 

Myself, thyself, "1 Turn ( ) to the right; he behaved 
himself, &c. J ( ) wisely. 

Greek, . . huhuq (suvtov) e%eiv 9 male (sc) habere. 

Hand ; . . Turn to the right ( ), not to the left ( ). 

Deed : thing . . . f ' Whatsoever ( ) ye would that men 
Deeds : things . . \ should do unto you/ &c. 
Cause Greek, &ia> tovto (uitiov), therefore. 



254 SYNTAX. 

Munus, officium, ingenium, negotium : 
( ) ' improbi hominis est mendacio fallere/ — Cic.pro Mur. 62. 
e Hoc sentire ( ) prudentise est/ — Cic. pro Sext. 10. 
1 Regium ( ) est parcere subjectis/ — Virg. JEn. vi. 853. 
Speech \ f Do you speak English ( ) ? 
Tongue J ' ' ' \ In short ( ), I will not do so. 
Chapter The first ( ) of Genesis. 

at . >■ The air dropped a fifth ( ) . 

A Message 1 f I have sent ( ) to Mr. A. 
A Letter J "| I have written ( ) to Mr. B. 
Years He is a man of forty ( ) . 

While "I f ^ nat ^ u d° f° r tne P r esent ( ). 

Ti me \ \ Have you been here long ( ) ? 

^ [ I was there a little ( ) before. 

Day The sixth ( ) of March. 

Hours It is four ( ) of the clock. 

Part A third ( ). 

Shillings Three ( ) and sixpence. 

Money How much ( ) did it cost ? 

Wealth Content with a little ( ) . 

Clothing She was clad in white ( ). 

Cloth Was it linen ( ) or woollen ( ) ? 

c, f In the Mediterranean ( ) and the 

Sea 1 Baltic ( ). ' ' 

Water Launch out into the deep ( ) . 

River The ( ) Thames ; the ( ) Severn. 

Wine Will you take some hock ( ) ? 

Road This ( ) leads to Dorchester. 

Way, direction ~\ He came straight ( ) to me. 

Via, regione . . . J Enavi recta ( ) ad me venit.— Cic.Att. 

pj f He was in the middle ( ) of the room. 

' Medio ( ) tutissimus ibis/ — Ovid Met. ii. 

He is in the north ( ), and his brother is in the 
south ( ). 
L I am standing in the dry ( ) . 

647. Articles : 

a . . . fHe was a learned, ( ) wise, and ( ) good man. 
the . . L^he Lords and ( ) Commons. 



Space . 
Part . 



SYNTAX. 255 

648. Personal Pronouns : 

he ..... . f He reads and ( ) writes. 

they, &c. . L They walk and ( ) ride. 
ego, vos, &c. . ( ) scribo, ( ) legitis. 

649. Limiting Pronouns : 

o f He is ( ) of the Horse Guards. 

one, «cc. . . ^ He ig ( j of the firm of A B & Co< 

650. Verbs : . . . . You cannot write, but I can ( ). 

You did not play cricket, but I did ( ) . 
hasten, run, flee . ( ) to arms, ( ) to the mountains. 

/ swear ( ) by the life of Pharaoh. 

is, there is ~\ ^ /"The more haste ( ), the less speed ( ) . 

are, there are J ' \Quot homines ( ), tot sententiae. 

Thence the Latin rule "Ponuntur interdum sola, per ellipsin, 
verba infinita ; ut, 
incipere, 'Hinc ( ) exaudiri gemitus, irseque leonum/ — Virg." 

651. Conjunctions: The King, ( ) Lords, and Commons. 

652. Prepositions : 

by .... He was actuated more by hope than ( ) fear. 
for .... They sell bread at sixpence ( ) a loaf. 

653. To, or unto, is omitted from a dative case ; as, ' We 
should have been like Gomorrah/ for l we should have been 
like unto Gomorrah/ 'Give ( ) me a book;' for 'give to 
me a book/ ' I went ( ) home/ 

To is omitted from the infinitive mood of some verbs ; as, 
' I heard him ( ) speak/ for ' I heard him to speak/ 
' Bid him ( ) come hither/ for ' bid him to come hither/ 

654. Adjectives, &c. 

Prceditus .... Vir ( ) magna doctrina. 
Justo Est paulo liberior ( ) . 

655. In relative propositions either the antecedent or con- 
sequent noun is often left out, though both of them arc some- 
times given with their relative pronoun : 

' Diem (1) dicunt, qua die (2), ad ripam Rhodani omnes 
conveniant/ — Cces. B. G. i. 5. 

Here both the antecedent (diem) and consequent [die) arc 
given. 



256 SYNTAX. 

The consequent ncmn is the most often omitted ; as, ' This 
is the tree which ( ) I planted/ 

Sometimes the consequent noun is given, and the ante- 
cedent one is left out ; as, 

( ) Urbem (2) quam statuo, vestraest; i.e. 

Urbs, (1) quam urbem (2) statuo, vestra est. 

( Quam materiam reperit, hanc ego polivi.' — Phad. 

Ego polivi hanc materiam quam materiam reperit. 

656. Propositions are left out; as, 

/ must say To be candid with you, ( ) I do not 

like your behaviour, 

/ swear ( ) " by the life of Pharaoh, ye shall 

not go forth hence except," &c. — Gen. xlii. 15. 

/ wish, &c The French imperative mood-formula, ' *qu , il 

aime, *qu'ils aiment/ is an apodosis of a con- 
ditional mood-formula (1 fast, 2 loose) without 
its protasis, which would be some such sentence 
as ' je veux :' ' je veux qu'il aime/ 

657. Pleonasm, 

A pleonasm is an overfilling of speech with a word which is 
not needful for the bare clearness, though it may be so for 
the full strength of its meaning ; as, 

A little bit of a house. A little doll of a woman. 

A great lout of a boy. A great thing of a boar. 

Greek, f^syu %fi\[LU crvog. 
Eng., What ever are you doing ? 

In Greek two or three negative adverbs are sometimes given 
instead of one : 

OuJfiVoTe ovdev ov [lv\ yevv\rai twv Seovtuv. — Demosth. 
where three things are nayed or negatived, (1) the time by 
ovU-kote, (2) the thing by ovSev, and (3) the happening by /xij. 

Spanish, Ella se alaba a si mismo. 

658. Other Figures of Grammar. 

Enallage is a change of words and cases, one for another, 
as an adjective for an adverb, — e he spoke slow' (for slowly) ; 
a noun for a pronoun, — " si quid est in Flacco viri " (for in 
me viri) . — Horace. 



SYNTAX. 257 

659. Syllepsis, or up-taking, is a taking up in the mind 
of something understood, but unnamed, and forming of the 
sentence to it. 

Spanish , ' Su alteza es muy docto/ 

' Your highness is very learned / 
where docto agrees, not with the nominative noun alteza, but 
with hombre man, understood under alteza. 

660. Metonymy, or name-changing, is a figure by which 
one puts the effect for the cause, or the cause for the effect, 
the place for the person, or the abstract noun for the concrete 
one; as, 'even to hoary hairs (old age) will I carry you;' 
'Heaven (God) preserve us ! ' ' the house (members) divided ; ' 
1 the soldiery (soldiers) were called out/ 'noctem' for ' somnum/ 
Virgil, lib. iv. 1. 530; 'wine (a drunken man) is a mocker/ 

661. Synecdoche is a figure by which one puts a part of a 
thing for the whole, or a definite for an indefinite number ; 
as, ' Mr. S. employs twenty hands (men) ;' 'all the useless 
mouths (people) were sent out of the city;' 'the horse (for 
horses in general) is a useful animal/ 

In Sophocles [Ajax, 1. 739), we find accfxaray bodies, for 
men or persons. 

662. Hendiadis is a figure by which one names one thing 
as two ; as, e malus aut fur/ for ' malus fur/ — Hor. Sat. i. 4, 3. 
' I heard shouting and men/ for ' the shouting of men/ 

663. Amphibolia, or twofold meaning, is a construction of 
words giving two meanings ; as, ( John met Simon, and gave 
him his bat/ which may mean either John's or Simon's bat. 

664. Anastrophe is an inversion of words from their more 
usual order ; as, ' mecum ' for ' cum me/ 

665. Asyndeton, or unbinding, is an omission of copu- 
lative words ; as, ' he is upright, kind, good/ 

666. Hypallage, or case-shifting, is a mutual shifting of 
two cases; as we say 'the men were put to the sword/ when 
the sword was put to the men. (Art. 272, &c. ; art. 617.) 

667. Hysterologia is a figure by which the speech names 
things in an order different from their natural one ; as, ' he 
earned two shillings, and worked all day/ for 'he worked all 
day, and earned two shillings/ 



258 



SYNTAX. 



668. Euphemismus, or fair-speaking, is a figure by which 
one speaks of an unbecoming or unworthy thing by a worthier 
name than its own, or gives it by fair words a more worthy 
form than its true one ; as, 

" The ' convicts ' in New Holland call themselves, and are 
called, ' government-men/ " — Henderson's Australia. 

Bullocks' blood was called ' spice ' by refiners of sugar. 

A little boy, who has carelessly broken his pencil, will most 
likely say l My pencil broke/ 

669. Purity. 

A language is called purer inasmuch as more of its words 
are formed from its own roots. 

Purity is deemed a good quality of languages, inasmuch as 
the purer a language is, the more regular it is in clippings and 
breath-sounds, and in the forms of its words and sentences; 
and the more readily it is learnt and understood, 

If the French word vin, or the Welsh word Haw, were 
borrowed into English, it would call for a breathing unknown 
to bare speakers of pure English ; and as the clipping of pure 
French does not call the tongue beyond the teeth, our word 
' truth ' would be hard to utter with the French. And while a 
thousand compound words formed from English single words 
would bear, to English minds, their own meanings in their 
known elements, a thousand words borrowed from another 
tongue would need a thousand learnings to be understood. 

" What the Greeks should aspire after/' says a late writer, 
iC is the complete purification of the modern language/' The 
modern Greek has been much improved by the weeding out 
of Turkish and Italian words, and by the partial restoration 
of ancient forms of construction. 

The intaking of Arabic words into the Persian and Hin- 
doostanee languages has made them hard to be understood 
without much knowledge of the Arabic Grammar, and there- 
fore of Arabic ; and the large share of Latin and Greek words 
in English makes it so much the less handy than a purer 
English would be for the teaching of the poor by sermons 
and books. 

We may enrich and purify our speech by the inbringing 
of words of forms already known and received. Of the verb- 
form (2-\-en) we may take 'greaten/ to exaggerate; of the 



SYNTAX. 259 

noun-form (5+1) we may take ' foredraught/ a programme; 
and on the adjective form (S-\-some) we may have ' bendsome/ 
for flexible. 

A writer in Chambers' Edinburgh Journal, Dec. 27, 185 1, 
has been bold enough to call what is mostly named a sub- 
marine telegraph, an undersea telegraph; and another, in an 
account of a visit of the British Archaeological Association to 
the antiquities of London, says, with a good English word, 
1 it was inwalled in the time of Alfred/ 

The text 1 Peter ii. 16, "As free, and not using your liberty 
as a cloke of maliciousness, but as the servants of God," 
seems translated less truthfully than it might have been, 
owing to the use of Latin-rooted instead of English words, 
such as liberty, maliciousness, and servants. It might have 
been better ' as free, and not using your freedom as a cloke 
of (or for) evil, or evildoing, but as the bondsmen of God/ 
Servants is not in antithesis to free or freedom, since our 
servants are free. 



670. Ethnology and Language. 

Mankind live on the earth in sundry tribes or nations, each 
of them composed of men of one stock and language, and 
bound together under one fellowship of laws and self-defence 
against others. 

These tribes or nations may be offmarked into kindreds or 
races, each of them composed of a set of tribes or nations of 
one older stock, and of languages from the same roots and of 
the same building. 

The English belong to the Teutonic race, which takes in 
the English, Germans, Dutch, Danes, Swedes, Norwegians, 
and Icelanders. 

The Sclavonic race are the Illyrians, Servians, Croats or 
Croatians, the Yendes or Slovenzi, Bulgarians, Wallachians, 
Moldavians, Bohemians, Slovaks, Poles, and Russians. 

The Finnic race comprehends the Finns, the Laps or Lap- 
landers, the Madjars or Magyars of Hungary, the tribes by 
the river Iscr and in Eastland, and Livonia in the circle of 
Riga and Courland. The Chercmisscs on the left side of 
the Volga, the Mordivincrs of Orenburg, the Permians and 
Syrjaencrs on the rivers Witshedga and Wini, the Wbgula of 
Siberia, and the Ostraks of the Lower Lrtysh and Ob. 



260 SYNTAX. 

The Celtic race, which had once a larger share of Europe, are 
now abiding only in the Welsh, the Bretons of France, and 
the Irish, the Manx, and Gael of Scotland, though their blood 
has mingled much with the French and a little with the English. 

The Basques or Gascons of the Pyrenees mountains are a 
fragment of an old race now nearly lost. 

It seems to be a law of languages, that when one tribe 
blends or mingles with another in one community or political 
life, through the taking of lands by war, the language of the 
incoming race will be grafted into that of the overcome tribe, 
or will take place of it, only after the same rate as the in- 
coming race are many or few as rated against the others ; 
and that the language of the incoming race will not wholly 
take place of that of the invaded one, till the former are more 
numerous than the latter. The fewer yield their language to 
the greater number. 

The Saxons and Angles seem to have at last outnumbered 
the Britons in the east and west of England, and to have 
planted their language there ; but the Franks, a Teutonic 
tribe, who took a share of Gaul or France, and the Northmen, 
who took Neustria, though they were the wielding race, were 
the fewer men, and were taken into the overcome population, 
and received their language. So Galatia in Asia Minor, and 
Gallicia in Spain, were settlements of fewer Gauls among 
more men of other races, and therefore St. Paul wrote to the 
Galatians in Greek, and the Gallicians speak Spanish. 

And since there are in India fewer English among more 
Hindoos, so if the English were to leave India next year, the 
English language would give place to the native tongues. 

The French language seems to have been formed from Latin 
grafted on a Celtic stock in the minds of the Gauls; and 
while most French words are broken stumps of Latin ones, 
many of its idioms are those of the Bretonne. 
French. Bretonne. 

tout-le-monde ; ar bed oil ; all the world, every body. 

je n'ai point de pain; n'am eus qet a vara ; I have no bread. 

je n'ai rien; n'em eus ne tra; I have nothing. 

au tour ; en dro. 

a cote; a gostez. 

divant ; diracg. 

d'aller ; da vont. 

So De Larramendi has shown that the Castilian has been 
formed from Latin words with the idiom of the Basque. 



261 



PROSODY. 

671. Prosody, which is so called from the Greek -rpog 
(for) and w£vj (song or poetry), treats of the laws of the 
language of poetry, and the accidents of words upon which 
those laws hold; such as the lengths and accents of syllables, 
the disposing of them in metrical lots with their rhymings 
and clippings, and the emphases and tones of words. 

672. In an English word of two or more syllables, one of 
them is uttered with a stronger breathing and higher sound 
than the rest of the word, as the syllable gram in gram-mar. 

673. The stronger breathing or higher sound of a syllable 
is called the acute accent, and the softer breathing or lower 
sound of a syllable is called the grave accent. 

The mark with which an acute accent is betokened in 
English is a stroke leaning to the right ( ' ) , and that with 
which a grave accent is betokened is a stroke leaning to th 
left of a reader ( N ) . 

674. The voice may both rise and fall with the same syllable, 
or may pronounce it with the acute and grave accent in quick 
succession : and this twofold accent is marked with what is 
called a circumflex, a or a. 

675. The relative lengths of time which are taken up in 
the uttering of syllables is called their quantity, or time. 

676. Syllables are short or long. 

677. The mark for a short syllable is a curve ("), as bid. 

678. The mark for a long syllable is a horizontal stroke ("), 
as bide. 

679. Accent is from the Latin word accentus, formed of ad 
(to or upon) and cano (to sing or sound), and means ringing or 
sounding on a syllable. In Greek it is called ro'vo; (tone or 
stress), from Tft'vu (to stretch or strain), as sharper or flatter 
tones arc given by the stronger or weaker strainings of a 
string, or the voice. 



262 PROSODY. 

680. That the accentus or Tovog (tonus) of the Romans 
and Greeks was the higher or lower sound of a syllable, which 
we call accent, is shown by their names for it, as it is by the 
accent of the Greek of our time, which answers to the mark- 
ings and laws of the acute accent in ancient Greek; and if 
that which has been betokened by the laws and markings of 
accent in Greek was some other thing than what we call 
accent, we must conclude that accent has taken the place of 
an unknown something that was not accent, and that the laws 
of that which accent has displaced hold upon accent as fully 
as they would if it were not accent, but that which it has 
displaced, though this would be an immutation unknown in 
any language of the world. 

It is clear, from what Cicero writes of accent (Or at. xviii.), 
that it was the same as our accent. He says, " Mira est enim 
qusedam natura vocis ; cujus quiclem, e tribus omnino sonis, 
inflexo, acuto, gravi, tanta sit, et tarn suavis varietas perfecta 
in cantibus. Ipsa enim natura, quasi modularetur hominum 
orationem, in omni verbo posuit acutam vocem, nee una 
plus, nee a postrema syllaba citra tertiam." 

The last expression is of the same meaning as a rule in Greek 
prosody, that an acute accent will not be followed by more 
than two syllables, nor by more than three times of a short 
syllable; and thence that the circumflex is never thrown 
farther back than the penultimate syllable, for the circumflex 
takes one time of rising and another of sinking, and its one 
time of sinking with another low syllable will make two low 
syllables, the most of low syllables that the acute accent takes 
after it. 

Thence the circumflex of voo^ci becomes an acute in the 
genitive case-form ffayuetrog ; for otherwise, since (tcc(jlcc is 
equal to (t6o(x<x,, (tu^citoq would be equal to aoofxecror,, a word 
of one acute syllable with three grave ones after it, and there- 
fore a word of a forbidden form. Hence come the rules, that 
if the last two syllables be short, the acute accent may be 
before them on the antepenultimate ; if the last two syllables 
be long, it comes on to the penultimate ; and if the penul- 
timate be long and the last short, the accent will be circumflex. 

The accent shifts in Illyric as it does in Greek and Latin. 

681. Notwithstanding the care with which English scholars 
learn and teach the rules of the acute accent in Greek, and 



PROSODY. 263 

mark it in their Greek books, few of tliem ever make the 
tovoq by their rules or markings when they read or speak 
Greek. 

They take the rule, ' If the last syllable be long, the accent 
will be placed on the penultimate/ and upon this rule write 
TVTtTOfLevov, vstpsXvj, and (TreQxvovg, and yet they pronounce 
them rvKTOixevov, vipfAvi, creQcivov;. 

682, English verse is constructed upon sundry orders of 
acute and grave accents and matchings of rhymes, while the 
poetic language of the Romans and Greeks is formed upon 
rules of the sundry clusterings of long and short syllables, 
and therefore the English are much given to confuse time and 
accent in Latin and Greek and other languages; so that a 
scholar may, without blame, pronounce amdbilis, insuperabilis, 
for amdbilis, insuperabilis, giving accent for quantity, and may 
say bonus and brevis for bonus and brevis, giving quantity and 
accent for the Latin accent ; though one must always give 
the right quantity to the penultimate or critical syllable of 
words of more than two syllables, and therefore he would 
sin greatly in the saying of vesica for vesica, though he may 
call vesica vesica without blame. 

From these anomalies of our Latin prosody, and from the 
insufficient lettering of the Latin, which has only one letter 
for a long and a short breath-sound of the same kind, the 
Latin prosody is, on the one hand, very bewildering; and yet, 
inasmuch as Latin poetry is constructed upon rules of sundry 
clusterings of long and short syllables, it is, on the other 
hand, of great weight in Latin scholarship. 

683. It must not be concluded that the mark which we 
have taken as a token of the acute accent fills the same office 
in all languages in wh^h it is found. 

In Spanish and Irish it betokens a long sound, and in 
Icelandic the leaning strokes over tin; vowels arc not tokens 
of tone, since the two words blasa (to turn toward) and blasa 
(to blow), and the two words atti (heated) and dtti (had) have 
the same tone. Nor docs this stroke (') at all denote the 
length of the vowels, for the unmarked ones are often long, 
and the diphthongic ones short or toneless, a- vH (well . math 
(meat) ; but it (the stroke; ' ) betokens an addition or essential 
alteration in the sound itself, as lap [taup] pith, tri {/r/< ; < tree, 



264 PROSODY. 

mer (mier) to me, gret {grief) wept; it therefore betokens a 
diphthong, of which the vowel it marks gives one sound. 

684. The same stroke, which is found in Anglo-Saxon, and 
is taken by most Anglo-Saxon scholars as a mark of a single 
long sound, might have been a mark of a diphthong ; and 
therefore, while it is rightly taken as a mark of two times, it 
may be wrongly taken as the mark of two times of the same 
sound. Many of the stroke-marked vowels of the Anglo-Saxon 
are found as diphthongs in some other Teutonic dialects ; as, 

clsen; Dorset, clean. dom; doom, 

hlaf; „ luof. eode; Northumb. yewd. 

hal ; „ hail. hy'rde ; Dorset, heard, 

an; one (won) ; Germ. ein. hwy'; why. 

gast; Germ, gheist. sy'; Germ. sey. 

stan ; Dor. stwon ; Ger. stein. fy'r ; fire ; Germ, feuer. 

lsed-an; Dorset, lead. ur; our. 

mare ; „ mwor. hiis ; house ; Germ, haiis. 

cid-an; chide. wrSutan ; without, 

mm; mine; Germ. mein. hu; how. 

fif; five. tun; town. 

snr3-an; Germ, schneiden. 

685. In English the acute accent keeps mostly on the root 
in words of the forms (.+1), (1+.), (.+2), (2+.), (.+3), 
(3+.) ; as, unhorse, manliness, unfair, truly, undo, laughingly. 
Compounds of the forms (4+1), (4+3), have the acute accent 
sometimes on 4, and sometimes on the root syllable; as, 
German, dnfang-en, zusehen, eingang, dbfall, ubersetz-en, wider- 
stehen, underwood, undersheriff. 

In Welsh the acute accent is on the last or penultimate 
syllable, and when it falls on the last it becomes a circumflex. 
In the north of Ireland the acute accent is on the root syllable, 
but in the south it is on the ending ; so that the poems of a 
Munster bard are of very bad constructfbn to an Ulster reader, 
and the song of an Ulster man is spoilt in the mouth of a 
Munster one. 

686. The utter inattention to quantity in English prosody, 
in which accent takes its place, works to make unlearned 
English bad pronouncers of words from languages in which 
long grave breath-sounds follow short acute ones. 

Kuron (kurari), with the first syllable short and the last 
long, is mostly called in England karan, with the first long and 



PROSODY. 265 

the last short ; and few English would make the last / syllable 
long without casting the acute accent on it, as kuran. 

So most other long end-syllables of words from the Oriental 
languages are either wrongly shortened as grave tones, or 
wrongly sharpened as long ones. 

Quantity 
True as commonly 

Quantity. pronounced. 

w - ) islam ( w w ) . 

" " ) ameer ( ~ w ) or ( w ~ ) . 

- - ) . . carvan, caravan ... ( M M w ) . 

- - ) divan ( " u ) or ( w - ) . 

" ~ ) faquir (""")• 

" - ) haram (""")■ 

-"--).... Allahabad. . . ("---), 
w w - ) ramadan .... ( w M w ) . 

- v ) kafir ( MW ). 

w " ) sultan ( u " ) . 

w - ) salam (""•)■ 

- - ) Shiraz ..... ( - " ) . 

687. Prosody is of much utility, not only for the wording 
of poetry, but also for the reading of it with advantage and 
pleasure, as well as for the true pronunciation of words and 
the ends of comparative and critical grammar; and it has 
often led to emendations of classical works. 

688. Scanning is the dividing of a line into its clusters of 
long and short, or acute and grave, syllables. 

689. To scanning belong several figures of prosody, — 
Synalcepha, Ecthlipsis, Syncuresis, Diaeresis. 

690. Synalcepha is the casting out of a vowel-ending of a 
word, before a vowel at the beginning of another : 

(«)i («)2 

Latin, conttcu- | er*om- \ nes in- | tentl \ qu*ora ten- | ebdnt. 
The e marked 1 and 2 are omitted. 

691. Ecthlipsis is the casting out of *m at the end of a 
word, before a vowel of the next in Latin poetry : 

1 2 

Latin, monstr[um] horrend[um~] uifori>i[e] ingens. 

The urn marked 1 and 2 BTO omitted. 

12 



266 PROSODY. 

692. Crasis, or Synaresis, is the contraction of two vowels 
into the time of one ; as, 

1 By fraud th[e 6]ffended Deity t[o a~\ppease.' 
Where the e and o, and the o and a, are uttered in the time of one short vowel. 

693. Diaeresis is the opening of one syllable into the time 
of two ; as, siliiae for silvce. 

694. The sundry clusters of long and short, or acute and 
grave, syllables are called feet. 

Dr. Latham has taught us, that if we betoken a long or 
acute accent or syllable by A, and a short or grave one by a, 
we can mark the sundry clusters of long and short, or acute 
and grave, syllables by very handy formulae of like clusters, 
of A's and a's. 

The feet are the 

Pyrrhic, 2 short or grave syllables (2 a). 

Spondee, 2 long or sharp (2 A). 

Iambus, 1 short or grave, and 1 long or sharp . . (a+A) . 

Trochee, 1 long or sharp, and 1 short or grave . (A-j-a) . 

Dactyl, 1 long or sharp, and 2 short or grave . . (A-f-2 a) . 

Anapaest, 2 short or grave, and 1 long or sharp . (2a+A) . 

Amphibrach, 2 short or grave, with a long or"! / i a i \ 
sharp between them J ^ ' *" '' 

Amphimacrum, 2 long or sharp, with a short ~\ , . , , . * 

or grave between them J ^ ' ' '' 

Baccheius, 1 short or grave, and 2 long or sharp . (a+2 A) . 
Anti-Baccheius, 2 long or sharp, and 1 shortl ,„ A-La^ 
or grave J 

Choriambus, 2 long or sharp between 2 short! f a 4_2A-4-a) 
or grave J 

Epitritus, an iambus and a spondee. 

Paeona, a trochee and a pyrrhic. 

Antispastus, an iambus and a trochee. 

695. A verse or line may be formed of a set number of 
feet, which may be all of the same kind, or of sundry kinds, 
and therefore there are sundry kinds of verse or metre. 



PROSODY, 267 

696. Heroic. 

6[(A + 2a) or (2 A)]. 

The Heroic verse of the Greeks and Romans has six feet, 
spondees or dactyls, though the fifth must always be a dactyl, 
and the last a spondee : 

Tu nihil | invi | ta di | cas faci ] as ve Mi- | nerva. 

This kind of verse has been tried in English, but does not 
seem to have been received with much favour. 

697. Elegiac 

The Elegiac verse is the pentameter of five feet, dactyls or 
spondees or anapaests : 

12 3 4 5 

Res est | solid | ti plen | a ti mor | is a mor. 

698. Adonic 

2[(A + 2a) + (2A)]. 
The Adonic verse is of two feet, a dactyl and spondee : 



1 


2 


l 


_2 


Gaudia 


pelle. 


Sis mihi 


praisens. 


Pelle ti- 


morem. 


Rebus in 


arctis. 






Christe Re 


demptor. 

Boe thins. 



699. Sapphic 

3 [(A+a) + (2 A) + (A+2a) + (2 A+a)] + 1 Adonic. 

A Sapphic verse is of five feet, a trochee, spondee, dactyl, 
two trochees ; and after three of such lines an Adonic : 

12 3 4 6 

Inte- ger vl- tse sceler- | Isque purus. 

700. Asclepiade. 

2[(A + 2) (A + 2a + A) + (a + A)]. 
An Asclepiade consists of 4 feet, a spondee, two choriambi, 
and an iambus : 

Maece- | nas atiivis | editc reg- | ibus. 

701. Iambic 

[6(a + A), or l(a + A)]. 

The Iambic verse is mostly of iambics and spondees, or 
other feet of their time, four or six in b line : 

"With wo | ful mea | suits wnn | Despair, 
Low sul | len sounds, | his grief | beguiled' 1 — Collins. 



268 PROSODY. 

1 2_ 3 4 

Inar | sit se - | stuo- | sms. 

12 3 45 6 

Suis I et Ip- | sa Ro- ] ma vi- | ribus | ruit. 

Hor. Epod. xvi. 2. 
"And Hope, | enchant | ed, smiled | and waved | her gold | en hair." 

Collins. 
l 2 3 i 

" Once more | the ho- | ly star I light 

1 2 3 

Sleeps calm | upon | thy breast, 

1 2 3 4 

Whose bright | ness bears | no to I ken more 

1 2 

Of man's | unrest." — Mrs. Hemans. 

702. Anacreontic. 
3[(a+A)+a) or (2 A) + 2 (a + A) + a.) ] 

The Anacreontic verse is of 3 \ feet ; the first a foot of 
three or four times, the second and third iambies : 

12 3 i 

ades pater siipre- me. 

1 , v 2 , v 3 , * 

" Mow on, | rejoice, | make mu | sic." — Mrs. Hemans. 

703. Archilochian. 

2[(A + 2a)+a)]. 
The Archilochian, 2| feet; two dactyls and a syllable : 

1 2 i 

Dulcibus alloqm- Is. 

704. Alcaic 

2 [ (a + A) + (2 A) + (2a+A) + (a + A) ]. 
The Alcaic, 4J feet; two feet of two syllables, a syllable, 
two dactyls : 

1 2 • 3 4 5 

Vides | ut al | ta stet | nive can | didum. 

705. Archilochian Iambic 

2 [2A+ (a + A)] +A. 

4J feet ; first and third spondees, second and fourth iambies, 
and a long syllable at the end : 

12 3 4 £ 

Nee su | mit aut | ponlt | secu | res. 



PROSODY. 269 

An odd syllable is sometimes given at the end of an English 
iambic line ; as, 

J 2 3 4 5 I 

of heaVn [ received | us fall- | ing, and | the thund- | er, 

706. Dactylic Alcaic Minor. 
2(A + 2a) + (A+a) + (2A.) 

1st and 2nd feet dactyls, and the 3rd and 4th feet trochee 

and spondee : . *_* . . * M . , 3 _ „ . 4 - 

arbitn | o popu- | lans | aurse. 

707. Phaleucian. 
(2A)+(A + 2a)+2(A + a) + (2A.) 

Five feet ; 1 spondee, 1 dactyl, and 3 trochees : 

1 2 3^4 5 

Summam | nee metu- | as di- | em nee j optes. 

708. The English heroic verse is mostly iambic of five feet : 

in heaven | or earth, | or un- [ der earth | in hell. 

This line is nearly, if not wholly, pure in quantity as well 
as in accent : 

in heaven | or earth, | 6r un- | der earth | in hell. 

This coincidence of the acute accent with a long syllable, 
and of the grave accent with a short one, is not, however, often 
found in English verse, in which accent is taken instead of 
quantity. 

709. A variation of iambic verse is often made by the 
incasting of a trochee instead of one of the iambics. 

1st foot trochee : 

My'sti- | cal dance , | which yond- | er star- | ry" sphere. 

2nd foot : 

Undeck't | save with \ herself | more love- | ly Sir. 

3rd foot : 

Fairest | of stars, | last in \ the train | of night. 

4th foot : 

These are | thy glo- | rious works, | par rut \ of go6d. 

5th foot : 

SpoiFd prin- | cipal- J ities | and powers | Iriinn'jifi'd. 



270 PROSODY. 

710. Each of the iambic feet may also give place to a 
spondee. 

1st foot : 

Smooth, ed- | sy\ in- [ offen- | sive, do.vn | to hell. 

2nd foot : 

At such | bold words, | vouched with | a deed | so bold. 

3rd foot : 

And faith- | fulnow | prov'd false, | but think | not here. 

4th foot : 

While day | aris- | es, that | sweet hour \ 6f prime. 

5th foot : 
Silence, | ye troub- | led waves, | and thou, | Deep, peace. 

711. The pyrrhic may take place of an iambic foot. 

1st foot : 

On the | proud crest | 6f Sa- | tan, that | no sight. 

2nd foot : 

Springs light- | er the | green stalk, | from thence | 
the leaves. 

3rd foot : 
Converse | with A'd- | am k | what bow'r | or shade. 

4th foot : 

By prayer | ih' offend- | ed de- | ity | t' appease. 

5th foot : 

His dan- | ger, and | from whom | what en- | emy\ 

The under-length of the pyrrhic is often made out by the 
over-time of the spondee, or by a pause, so that the time of 
the verse is not shortened or lengthened by either of them. 

712. The anapaest and dactyl seem to have, in many places, 
two shortened short syllables, such as Quinctilian calls bre- 
vities breviores, 'shorter than the short'; so that two of them 
take up only one short time : 

and flow'- | ring 6- | dours, cass- | ia, nard, | and balm. 
No in- | grate- | ful food, | and food | alike | those pure. 

713. The anapaest may take place of an iambic foot, 
1st foot : 

1 2 3 4 5 

To e- | van- | gelize | the na- | tions, then | on aLl. 



PROSODY. 271 

2nd foot : 

of mer- | dy and jus- | tice in | thy face | discern'd. 

3rd foot : 
Near that | bi-tu- | minous lake j where So- | dom flamed. 

4th foot : 

The earth | to yield | unsa- | vbury food | perhaps 

5th foot : 

HurFd head- | long flam- | ing from | the ethe- | real sky. 

714. The dactyl may take place of an iambic foot. 

1st foot : 

Myriads | tho' bright ; | if he | whom mu- | tual league. 

3rd foot : 

More just- | ly , seat | worthier | 6f gods | is built. 

4th foot : 

over | the vast | abyss, | following \ the tract. 

715. Two or three trochees, spondees, or anapaests may 
take place of as many iambics in the same line. 

* # * These notes on the commutation of feet in English verse are 
taken from a Paper on ' the Quantity or Measure of English Verse, 
with Examples from Milton,' Annual Register, 1758. 

716. Sometimes the last line of a couplet has six instead of 
five feet, and is called an Alexandrine : 

And Hope | enchant- | ed smiled, | and waved | her gold- | en hair. 

Collins. 

717. Iambic verse is of sundry metres besides the heroic, 
or has more or fewer feet in a line. 

1st, two feet. 2(a + A.) 

Pack clouds | away, 

And wel- | come day. — Heytcood. 

Tho' lee- J ward whiles, | against | my will 4 (a-pA.) 
I took I a bick- | er.'— Burns. 2 (a+A) -f (a.) 

Once more | the ho- | ly star- | light 8 (a+A) -\~ (a.) 
Sleeps calm | upon | thy breast, W fa-j-A.) 

Whose bright- | ness bears | no to- | ken more 4 (a-J-A.) 
Of man's | unrest. 2 (a-f-A.) 



278 PROSODY. 

2(a + A.) 

Your voi- | ces raise, 

Ye cher- | ubim 

And ser- | aphim, 
To sing | his praise. 

One night | as I | did wand- | er, 3 (a-j-AJ -I- (a.) 

When corn | begins | to shoot. — Bums. 3 (a-f-A.) 

4(a + A.) 

Ye banks | and braes | o' bon- | nie Doon, 
How can | ye bloom | so fresh | and fair. 

4(a + A) + (a.) 

Thy wee | bit hous- | ie too | in ru- | in, 
Its silly wa's the wins are strewin. — Burns. 

5(a + A.) 

The sil- | ver swan, | who liv- | ing had | no note, 
When death | approach'd | unlock'd | her si- | lent throat. 

May pure | contents 2 (a-|-A.) 

For ev- | er pitch | their tents. 3 (a-(-A.) 

Upon | these downs, | these meads, | these rocks, | these mount- 
ains, 5 (a+A) -|- (a.) 
And peace | still slum- | ber by | these purl- | ing fount- | ains. 

Raleigh. 

Sometimes we have alternately four feet in one line, and 
three in the other : this is called common metre. 

As pants | the hart | for cool- | ing streams, 

When heat- | ed in | the chace, 
So longs | my soul, | God, | for thee, 

And thy | refresh- | ing grace. 

718. Trochee. 

One foot and a long syllable. ( A -)- a ) -(- (A.) 

Tumult | cease, 
Sink to | peace. 

Two feet. 2(A + a.) 

Rich the | treasure, 

Sweet the | pleasure. — Dryden. 

(Two feet + 1). 2 (A + a) + (A.) 

Can I | cease to | care ? 



PROSODY. 273 

Three feet. 3(A + a.) 

Can I | cease to | languish ? — Burns. 

(Three feet + 1 .) 3 (A + a ) + (A.) 

Scots wha | hae wi' | Wallace | bled, 
Scots wham Bruce has often led. 

Four feet. 4(A + a.) 

Onward | float, the | wave di- | viding, 
Go, my | bark, se- | renely | gliding. 

(Four feet + 1.) 4 ( A + a) + (A.) 

Must I | tell my | sorrow | and de- | spair ? 

Five feet. 5(A + a.) 

We must | make for | yonder | distant | island. 

719. Dactyl. 

Spondee and iambus. (2A-|-a)-f (A.) 
God save | the Queen. 

Two feet. 2 ( A + 2 a.) 

Bird of the | wilderness, 
Blithesome and | cumberless. — Hogg, 

Happy and | glorious, 
Long to reign | over us. 

(A + 2a)+(A+a.) 

Non sia ri- | trosa, 
Non isdegn- | dsa, 
Ma rftro- | sett a, 
E sdegnos- | (-tta. 

(Three feet + 1.) 3 ( A + 2 a) + (A.) 

Light be thy | matin o'er | moorland and | \ca.—Ilogg. 

(Three feet + 2.) 3 ( A + 2 a) + ( A + a. ) 
Light sounds the | harp when the | combat is | over. — Moore. 

Four feet. 4(A + 2a.) 

Out of the | door as I | look'd with a | steads phiz.— 5 

12 ^ 



274 PROSODY. 

720. Anapaestic 

Two feet. 2 (2 a + A.) 

Hearts of oak | are our ships, 
British tars | are our men. — Song. 

Three feet. 3 (2 a + A.) 

Oh, the stream- | let that flow'd | round her cot, 
All the charms | of my Em- | ily knew. 

Sometimes the first anapaest gives place to an iamb as ; 

I am mon- | arch of all | I survey, 
My right | there is none | to dispute. 

Pour feet. 4 (2 a + A. ) 

And the sheen | of their spears | was like stars on the sea, 
When the blue | wave rolls night- | ly on deep Galilee. — Byron. 

721. A catalectic or wanting verse is one that wants a 
syllable for the filling of its feet, or a hypercatalectic or over- 
full verse is one that has an odd syllable besides its full feet. 

It might be more rational to consider that the catalectic 
and hypercatalectic verses are neither underfull nor overfull 
in time, if they are in speech ; and that the odd syllables are 
always followed by pauses, with which they make, in time, true 
feet. They may be called pause-footed verses; and if we 
take P for a long pause, or the pause of an acute accent, 
and p for a short pause, or the pause of a grave accent, 
then the Anacreontic verse (art. 702) would be of four feet, 
3 (a+A) + (a+P). 

The archilochian (art. 703) would be of three feet, 
2 (A+2 a) + (A+2 p). 

. So of the other metres : 

2 (a+A) + (a) (art. 717) should be 2 (a+A) + (a+P). 

3 (a+A) + (a) would be 3 (a+A) + (a+P). 

4 (a+A) + (a) is 4 (a+A) + (a+P). 

(A+a) + (A) (art. 718) should be* (A+a) + (A+p). 

2 (A+a) + (A) is 2 (A+a) + (A+p). 

3 (A+a) + (A) might be 3 (A+a) + (A+p). 

4 (A+a) + (A) would be 4 (A+a) + (A+p). 

3 (A+2 a) + (A) (art. 719) should be 3 (A+2 a) + (A+2 p) 
3 (A+2 a) + (A+a) is 3 ( A + 2 a ) + ( A + a +p)« 



PROSODY. 



275 



The following are overfull verses of sundry kinds. The odd 
syllable is given in italics. 

722. Iambic, 

with C + P.) 

2 ( a-f-A)-J-(a.) I took | a bick- | er. — Burns. 

3 (a-f-A)-|-(0O One night | as I | did wan- | der. — Burns. 

4 (a-|-A)-}-(a.) Thy wee | bit hous- | ie too | in ru- \ in. — Burns. 

5 (a-J-A)+(a.) Upon | these downs, | these meads, | these rocks, | 

these mount- | ains. — Raleigh. 

723. Trochaic, 
with(' + p.) 

2 trouhees-j-(^-) Can I | cease to | care ? 

3 trochees-f-(^-) Scots wha | hae wi' | Wallace | bled, 

Scots wham | Bruce has | often | led. — Burns. 

4 trochees-f-(^.) Must I | tell my | sorrow | and de- | spair ? 

724. Dactylic, 

with C + 2p.) 

1 dactyl-f-(^.) God save the | Queen. 

2 dactyls-|-(^.) Bright be the | place of thy | soul. — Byron. 

3 dactyls-f-(^.) Sound the loud | timbrel o'er | Egypt's dark | 

sea. — Moore. 

3 dactyls-|-(^+fl.) Light sounds the | harp when the I com bat is | 
o ver. — Moore. 

725. In loose verse a trochee often takes piace of a dactyl, 
and a dactyl takes that of a trochee : 

Little Miss | Muffet she | sat on a | tuffel, 
Eating of | curds and | whey. 

Why all this 

fining 



lining ? 

? 



Why all this 
The following verses are of sundry kinds of feet : 

Come ye, | come ye, | to the green, | green wood, 

Loudly' the | blackbird is | singing; 
The squir- | rel is feast- | nig on bios- | som and bud, 
And the curl- | ing fern | is spring- | Wg.'—Howitt. 

Two trochees take the place of a dactyl : 
Down by' yon | stream, .and yon 1 bonny edstte | green. — Burns. 



276 



PROSODY. 



A dactyl is given for an iambus : 

He bade | me act | a man- | ly' part, | though I' | had ne'er | a 

far- | thing, O, 
For without | an hon- | est man- | ly heart, | no man | was worth 
| regard- | ing, O. — Burns. 

An iambus is cast in for an anapaest : 

And her hair, | shedding tear- | drops from all | its bright | rings, 
Fell 6- | ver her white | arm, to make | the gold strings. — Moore. 

Wliere health | and high spi- I rits awa- | ken the morn, 
And dash | through the dews j that impearl | the rough thorn, 

To shouts | and to cries 

Shrill e~ | ch6 replies, &c. — Bishop. 

726. The measure of two lines taken together is sometimes 
full, while each of them taken singly as they are written, is 
overfull or wanting. Such lines may be so written as to show 
their full measure : 

Light sounds the | harp, when the | combat is | over, | when 
Heroes are | resting, and | joy is in bloom ; | when 

Laurels hang | loose frbm the | brow of the | lover, | and 
Cupid makes | wings 6f the | warrior's | plume. — Moore. 

727. The following is a trial at English sapphics by Dr. Watts: 

When the fierce northwind, with his airy forces, 

Rears up the Baltic to a foaming fury, 

And the red lightning, with a storm of hail, comes 

Bushing amain down. — Notes and Queries, iii. 494. 

728. Part of the 120th Psalm, in alcaic metre : 

As to th' Eternal often in anguishes 
Erst have I called, never unanswered ; 

Again 1 call, again I calling, 

Doubt not again to receive an answer. — Sir P. Sidney ? 

729. The Japanese mostly write their poetry in distichs. 
The first line of a distich is made up of three feet or measures, 
with five syllables in the first, seven in the second, and five in 
the third. The last line of the distich has two feet or mea- 
sures, with seven syllables in each. 



277 



RHYME. 

730. Rhyme is the matching of two breath- sounds by the 
likeness of one to the other of them. The rhyme-likeness of 
two breath-sounds consists in voicings (vowel -sounds) and 
clippings (articulations or consonants) . A breath-sound may 
be only a pure breath-sound or voicing, as o or owe; or it 
may be a voicing with a clipping, or more than one clipping, 
before it or after it ; as, bo, bio ; bot, blot ; stand, brand. 

The main element of rhyme-likeness is the last voicing in a 
breath-sound ; as e in me, be ; a in hand, land. 

The next elements of rhyme- likeness are the clippings that 
follow the last voicing ; as nd in hand, land. 

731. It is a rule of full and true English rhyme, that the 
last voicings, and all the clippings after the last voicings, of two 
rhyming breath-sounds should be the same, as band rhymes 
with land, or as weeps rhymes with sleeps in 

Lo ! where this silent marble tceeps, 
A friend, a wife, a mother sleeps. 

732. It is a rule of full and true English rhyme, that two 
clippings before the two last voicings of two rhyming breath- 
sounds should be different, and therefore that a breath-sound 
should not be taken for a rhyme to itself, as in the lines 

The blackbird leaves 
The quiv'ring leaves. 
or, The sailors see 

The rolling sea. 

733. Now if we set a vowel, a or e, for the last voicing of a 
breath-sound, and figures 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. in the places of the 
clippings of it, they will afford us handy forrnuhe for the be- 
tokening of rhyming breath-sounds and rhymes. 

a. 1. would betoken a breath-sound of one voicing and one 

clipping, as on. Then, if sundry figures betoken sundry clippings, 

a. 1. 2. would stand for one voicing and two clippings, as old; 

3. a. 1.2. would mean a breath-sound of one 1 voiriiiir, With 
a clipping before it and two tonguinga after it ; and 

4. 3. a. 1,2. would be a formula for a breath-sound of one 
voicing between two pairs of clippings, as hi a ml. 



278 



RHYME. 



Two of such formulae for breath-sounds placed parallel, with 
a line between them, as 

3. 4. a. 1. 2. 
5. a. 1.2. 
would betoken a pair of rhyme breath-sounds, as 

bland 
land. 

Now the rule for full and true English rhyme is, that the 
last voicings, and all the clippings after the last voicings, of 
two rhyming breath-sounds should be the same, but that all 
the clippings before them should not be the same ; so English 
rhymes would be of the form 



a -o 




a 


-0 


l.a no. 


2.1. a a ° 


snow. 


1. a no 

as 

-a -o. 




2. l.a 

as 

-a 


snow 

-0. 


2. 1. a free 
o as ■ 
3. a me. 


3. a 

o i as 

2. l.a 


me 

free. 


2. a. 1. 

3. a. 1. as 


bad 
lad. 






4. a. 1.2. 


band 


• 




5. a. 1.2. ab 


land. 






3. 4. a. 1.2. 


trend 






4. a. 1. 2. ° rend. 







In Arabic, Persian, and Hindoostanee prosody, the voicing 
and clippings of rhyming breath-sounds bear sundry names. 
A last long voicing is ridf, and the last short voicing, with the 
clipping after it, is kied ; the clipping that follows ridf, or 
kied, is rewee. 

734. These rules do not hold good for the rnyme of all 
languages, and they are sometimes broken by English writers. 
Butler, in his Hudibras, frequently breaks the rule that the last 
voicings of two rhyming breath-sounds should be the same in 
quality and quantity, and often gives an opener and closer, 
and a longer and shorter, as rhymes. 

Let different vowels betoken sundry voicings, and let a 
vowel with a dash ( a' ) stand for a short vowel, and a vowel 
with two dashes ( a" ) mean a long one. Then the unlikeness 



*r 



RHYME. 279 

of the two last voicings of the two breath-sounds will be 
shown by the formulae — 

3. | a. 1. lad 

4. | e. 1. bed. 
3. a'. 1. ten 



4. a". 1. mane. 

735. Cases of the breach of rules. 

— - instead of — - 
e. a. 

And weave fine cobwebs, fit for skull 

That's empty, when the moon is full. — Hud. pt. i. c. i. 1. 159. 

They stoutly in defence on't stood, 

And from the wounded foe drew blood. — Ibid. 323. 

The mighty Tyrian queen, that gain'd 

With subtle shreds a tract of land. — Ibid. 467. 

Some of Butler's misrhymings, as they are to us, may 
have been true rhymes in his time, since which the voicings 
of many of our words have changed, as in 
And when we can with metre safe, 
We '11 call him so ; if not, plain Raph. 
Ralph is still often voiced Rafe by the rustics of the "West 
of England. 

a 1. 

736. In Norse the half- rhyme, — j which is called skot- 

hending, is allowed; so that stirS-urn rhymes with norh-an, 

and varft with for$, and 

sparaft . , , 

— — r=- is a good rhyme. 

a o 

— - — L is the form of one of Butler's rhymes : 
e. o. 

The Rabbins wrote when any Jew 

Did make to God, or man, B vow. — Hud. pt ii. c. 2. 

737. 3. a. 1. 



4. c. r. 

In this case of half-rhyme the last voicing arc of Mmdry 
sounds, and are followed by clippings which arc kinsli t 
but not the same ; as, met 

bad. 



280 RHYME. 

This rhyme is allowed in Irish, under the name of uaithne, 
or union. Butler has taken the freedom of this form of 
half-rhyme : 

The beaten soldier proves most manful, 

That, like his sword, endures the anvil. — Hud. pt.ii. c. 1. 

But we must claw ourselves with shameful 

And heathen stripes, by their example. — Ibid. c. 2. 

sham*/ * I 
examp*l. 

Her mouth compared to an oyster's, with (wid) 

A row of pearls in't 'stead of teeth (tjd:). Ibid. 

738. a. 1. 2. 



e. 1. 3. 

This form is allowed as a good half-rhyme (skot-hending, 
half-assonance) in Norse poetry, in which 

n ,„ - — is a good rhyme. 
739. a. 1. 



a ' 1- 
This is a form of imperfect rhyme, where the last voicings 
are of the same sound, but one of them long and the other 
short, with the same clippings ; as, lane 

ten. 

But first, with knocking loud and bawl-ing, 

He roused the squire in truckle loll-mg. — Hud. pt. ii. c. 2. 



740. a. 1. 



a. r. 

This form of half-rhyme has the last voicings the same, 
and the last clippings of the same kind or class ; as, blade 

late. 

The Persian poets call it eekfa, and sometimes, though rarely, 
allow it ; so that lub has been taken as a rhyme to chup. 

It is allowed, also, in Irish poetry under the name of com- 
harda or correspondence. 



RHYME. 281 



Butler has admitted it into his Hudibras, as in 

In which they 're hamper'd by the fet-lock, 
Cannot but put y' in mind of wed-lock. 

Also, And, by the greatness of its noise (noiz), 

Proved fittest for his country's choice (tqois). 

741. a' 1. 



a" V. 

In this form of half-rhyme the last voicings are of the same 
class but of sundry lengths, and the last clippings are of the 
same class but not the same ; as in 

not overstrain'd, 
nor overbent. 



742. a. 1. 

a. 2. 

In this form of half-rhyme the last voicings are the same, 
but the last clippings are of sundry classes. 

This form is the imperfect correspondence of Irish poetry, 
in which it stands good with the form 

743. a. 



a. 1. 



where one of the rhyming breath-sounds has no tonguing ; 

ba . . 
-^ — is a rhyme, 
bias J 



so that 



744. a. 1. 2. a. 1.2. 

or 



a. 1. 2'. a. 1. 3. 

are forms of half-rhyme, in which the same voicings have 
more clippings than one, and the last clippings arc of sundry 
classes or breathings. 

It is allowed as a good rhyme {fiendiny or assonance) in 
Norse poetry, in which 

In arts . , . 

-r '•— r- is a good rhyme, 
njarta 



282 RHYME. 

745. Twofold Rhymings. 

The two main rhyming breath-sounds are often given with 
two or more others after them ; as, say-ing 

pray-ing. 

In English rhyme it is needful that the two hinder breath- 
sounds of the rhyme should be the same ; as ing of the two 
rhyming words saying and praying. 

The hinder rhyming breath-sound is called by the Persian 
poets rudeef, an Arabic word, meaning the hindermost, as of 
two men upon one horse ; and they mostly make only a word, 
but not a syllable rudeef. 

Hinder rhjwne, or rudeef, takes place very often in English, 
and still more often in Persian, Kafir, Italian, Spanish, and 
Portuguese poetry ; as, 

He snatch'd his weapon, that lay near him, 

And from the ground began to rear him. — Hud. pt. i. c. 2. 

But since you dare and urge me to it, 
You '11 find I 've light enough to do it. — Ibid. c. 1. 
Compound for sins they are inclined to, 
By damning those they have no mind to. — Ibid. 
And little pleasure had they in him, 
Who had spent the day to win him. — Allingham. 

746. The Persians sometimes give, after the rhyming breath- 
sounds, two or more words answering in final letter with the 
rhyme ; and at other times they bring in two rhymes at the 
end of a distich, as if we were to write 

In the light day 
Of bright May. 

Or, In the cold gloom 

Of an old tomb. 

747. When the rhyming breath-sounds are those of two 
words of the same measure or number of letters, as well as 
full rhyme, the Persian poets call the rhymes 'full sujd/ or 
full rhyme, though sujd means a-cooing, as of doves ; as, 

Fra le vane speranze e'l van dolore, 

Ove sia chi per prova intenda amore. — Petrarca, son. 1. 

748. A tongue-rhyming of only the last clippings of two 
words of sundry measures and numbers of breath- sounds, is 
called sujd moturruf, or end-rhyming. 



RHYME. 283 

749. Blank Verse. 

Poetry written in unrhyming lines is called blank verse. 
Milton's Paradise Lost, and most of Shakspeare's works, with 
Thomson's Seasons and many other poems, are in blank verse. 
Although blank verse is free of rhyme, yet it seems holden 
by another rule, — that every verse should end with an im- 
portant or emphatic word. 

No sooner had the Almighty ceased, but all 

The multitude of angels, with a shout 

Loud as from numbers without number, sweet 

As from blest voices, uttering joy, heav'n rung 

With jubilee ! Milton. 

The rolling year 

Is full of Thee. Forth in the pleasing spring 

Thy beauty walks, thy tenderness and love. 

Wide flush the fields, the softening air is balm, 

Echo the mountains round, the forest smiles, 

And ev'ry sense and ev'ry heart is jog. Tkommm. 

750. Rhymes are arranged in sundry ways, as in couplets 
or distiches of two lines together : 



Oh, render thanks to God above, ( — a) 
The fountain of eternal love. ( — a) 

In verses of four lines, of which the alternate ones rhyme 

with each other : a. 

b. 



As high as heav'n its arch extends ( — a) 

Above this little spot of clay, ( — 1)) 
So much His boundless love transcends ( — a) 

The small respects that ire can pay. ( — b) 

Or thus : a. 

b. 

b. 



And hard Unkindncss' altcr'd 

That mocks the tear it forced to flow, ( — a) 

And keen Remorse with blood d<///W, ( — b) 

And moody Madura laughing ( — b) 

Amid severest woe. ( — a) 



284 RHYME. 

Lament in rhyme, lament in prose, ( — a) 

Wi' saut tears trick'ling down your nose, ( — a) 

Our bardie's fate is at a close, ( — a) 

Past a' remead; ( — b) 

The last sad capestane o' his woes, ( — a) 

Poor Mailie 's dead. ( — b) 

Burns. 

'Tis done ! But yesterday a king, ( — a) 

And arm'd with kings to strive ; ( — b) 

And now thou art a nameless thing, ( — a) 

So abject, — yet alive ! ( — b) 

Is this the man of thousand thrones, ( — c) 

Who strewed our earth with hostile bones ? ( — c) 

And can he thus survive ? ( — b) 

Since he, miscall'd the Morning Star, ( — d) 

Nor man nor fiend hath fall'n so far. ( — d) 

Byron, Ode to Buonaparte. 

Fair Greece ! sad relic of departed worth / ( — a) 

Immortal, though no more, — though fallen, great / ( — b) 

Who now shall lead tiiy scatter 'd children forth, ( — a) 

And long-accustom'd bondage xmcreate ? ( — b) 

Not such thy sons who whilome did await, ( — b) 

The hopeless warriors of a willing doom, ( — c) 

In bleak Thermopylae's sepulchral strait : ( — b) 

Oh ! who that gallant spirit shall resume, ( — c) 

Leap from Eurota's banks, and call thee from the tomb ? ( — c) 

Byron. 



751. Sonnet. 

The sonnet is a composition of a very pretty form, of 
which many and most excellent specimens have been given by 
Petrarca, the Italian poet, and by writers of England, Por- 
tugal, and other nations of Europe. 

The sonnet is a perfect little poem on one subject, and it 
must have fourteen lines and five sets of rhymes, (a, b, c, d, e) ; 
two sets of a and b, which may be arranged in sundry ways 
in the first eight lines, and the other three sets (c, d, and e f ) 
may be given, in sundry orders, as the ending of the last six 
lines; as, 



RHYME. 



285 



a 


a 1 


b 


b 


b 


a 


a 


b 


a 


b 


b 


a 


b 


b 


a 


a 


c 


c 


d 


d 


e 


d 


c 


c 


a 


e 


e 


e 



Ye airs of sunny spring, that softly hlow ( — a) 

"With whisp'ry breathings o'er the grasses blade; ( — b) 

Ye grass-bespangling flow'rs — too soon to fad* — ( — b) 

That now with gemlike brightness round me grow ; ( — a) 

Ye saplings small and green-bough'd trees, that throw ( — a) 

Your waving shadows on the sunny glade ; ( — b) 

Thou lowland stream, whose winding waters jloxo ( — ai 

Like molten silver to the hoarse cascade, ( — b) 

Give Vice the noisy town, and let the great ( — c) 

Ride mighty o'er the earth with pride and poic'r ; ( — dj 

(iive Avarice his gold, but let mejfrr ( — e) 

Where cold and selfish hearts live not to hate ( — c) 

And scorn. Oh, take me to thy lonely bow'r, ( — d) 

Sweet rural Nature ! Life is sweet for thee. ( — ei 



752. Nine-Une Rhyme, 

Ay, me! how many perils do enfold 
The righteous man to make him daily tall, 

Were not that hcav'idy grace doth him \ipiold, 

And Btedfast Troth acquite him out of all, 

Her care is firm, her can- continual, 
So oft as he, through ln> own foolish | I 

Or weakness, U to sinful hands made ti 



(-a) 

(-»•■ 

(— 

Else should this red-croM knight in baud- ! 

For whose deliverance she this prime doth thitlu [ —c) 

iter. 



00 RHYME. 






Eight lines. 






Di vivere disciolto 




(-a) 


Gia die pretendo in xano, 




(-b) 


M'annodi quella memo 




(-b) 


Chi mi guidb fin or. 




(-c) 


Da solio, o dall' ovile, 




(-d) 


Sia rozzo o sia gentile, 




(-<*) 


Sceglier tu dei quel volto, 




(-a) 


Che ha da legarmi il cor. 




(-c) 


Metastasio. 


Cada il tixanno, 




(-a) 


Kegno d'amore, 




(-b) 


Regno d'ingcmno 




(-a) 


Di crudely. » 




(— o) 


Scemo ogni core 




C-b) 


De' suoi martin, 




(-d) 


L'aure respm 




(-d) 


Di liberty. Ibid. 


(~c) 


As the sets and orders of rhymes are 


free for the fancy of the 


oet, it is not thought needful to give 


more 


patterns of them. 



753. 



Word-Matching. 



There is in Eastern poetry a kind of word-rhyming, or 
word-matching, in which every word of a line is answered by 
another of the same measure and rhyme in the other line of 
the distich : it is called ters\a, or adorning. 

The following distich is a ters\a as to the accented words : 
She drove her flock o'er mountains, 
By grove, or rock, or fountains. 

There are kinds of matchings of words, breath-sounds, or 
clippings, which the Persians call tujn\s, or likeness. 

754. That which they call tujuis-i-tam, or ' full-matching/ 
is a full likeness in sound, of words which differ in meaning, 
and is nothing more than our punning ; as if one were to say 
to a married lady, ' If I calTd you a miss, I calFd you amiss.' 

755. A matching of each of the words of one line by another 
of the same measure in the other, is called by the Persians 
sujd mowozana, or constant matching, as in the couplet — 



1 2 

In I Britain's 
An ancient 



l 

isle, 
pile 



12 1 

no | matter | where, 

of | building | stands. — Gray. 



Syllables. 







RHYME. 






287 




Or, 




1 2 


2 


2 1 


In 


silent 


horror 


o'er 


the 


boundless 


waste 


The 


driver 


Hassan 


with 


his 


camels 


past. 




Or, 


Collins. 


1 l 


2 3 




And | the | 


blackest | discontents 




Be 


| her j 


fairest 


ornaments. - 


—Wither. 





756. In Irish verse there is a rale called rinn, ending, or 
airdrinn, head-ending, by which the last word of the second 
line of a quatrain should have one syllable more than the last 
word of the first, and the last word of the fourth one more 
than that of the third. 

Irish metre has a kind of verse called seadna, in which the 
last word of the second and fourth line of the quatrain is a 
monosyllable called ceann, or head. Sometimes the first and 
third lines are made to end in a word of two syllables, and the 
third and fourth in a word of one syllable. 

In one kind of Irish verse, rannaigheact bheag, or the less 
filling, every line ends with a word of two syllables. In 
rannaigheact mhor, or the great filling, every line ends with 
a word of one syllable. In casbhairn every line ends with a 
word of three syllables. 

757. Tirsyi with tujn\s, a full matching, in number and 
form, of breath-sounds of the words of two lines, is holden 
by the Persians as a great beauty j as, 

or tui n'oz ore 
or tui noz ore. 

If thou hast not love, 
If thou hast sportiveness. 

Or, as if we say in English : 

What can undo 
What cannon do ? 



758. Clipping-Rhyme, or Matching of Clipping!. 

Clipping-rhyme, or matching of clippings, or letter-matching, 
is the inbringing of the same clippings in set places of B line, or 
two lines. It is known in the versification of many Languages. 

There is a matching of clippings which takes place in Welsh 
and Persian poetry. 

The Persians call it tiynifi-i-nokis, or deficient LOceni 
and the Welsh cynghanedd. 



288 RHYME. 

By this matching, some same clippings are brought into two 
lines, or in two halves of a single line. 
The seaman 

By heaven's stars v, n, s, t, r, s. 

To havens steers. v, n, s, t, r, s. 

In both of the last two lines the clippings v, n, s, t, r, s are found. 

"Forsaking better ways, s, k, ng, b, t, r, w, s. 
Is seeking bitter woes, s, k, ng, b, t, r, w, *. 

The hunter roams 

In woody wolds w, d, w, I, d, s. 

And weedy wilds. w, d, w, I, d, s. 

Beguiled by gold, b, g, I, d, \ b, g, I, d. 

What hast thou sold ! 

In the first line the clippings b, g, I, d are found twice. 

And can a little boy that's good, 
.Dare kill a bird's dear callow brood? d, r,k, I, b,r, d, \ d,r,k (c),l,b,r, d. 

Here the clippings d, r, k, I, b, r, d are found twice in the last line, 
for c in callow is of the same clipping as k in kill. 

My Dorset maid, my dearest meed m, d, r, s, t,m,d\ m,d,r,s,t, m,d. 
Is now thy winsome smile. 

Compare the Norse . . Enn beir er Jcomxx. 
Kilix vestan til t 
Um lerS IrSu 
and the Latin imafjarSar brm ; 

Quseque lacus late liquidos. — Virg. 2En. iv. 26. 

The cry of Reuben, on his missing of Joseph, with its 
clipping rhyme of n, is very touching : 

:N2~~^a ma ^m w*h ib*n 

|T .-; tvt •-;- v •• v v- 

Hayeled enennxo. vaawj ono awj bo. 

n n n n n 

The child is not ; and I, whither shall I go ? — Gen. xxxvii. 30. 

There is a tendency in English, and some other languages, 
to the formation of two-limbed words, with clipping-rhyme 
and full-voice rhyme. 

Clipping-rhyme. 

chit-chat. gew-gaw. riff-raff 

ding-dong. hip-hop. 

„,-£ j. jS, . r , r ! see-saw. 

fiddle-faddle. nick-nack. slin-sloo 

flim-flam. niddy -noddy. P" J* 

J J snip-snap. 



RHYME. 289 

Voice-rhyme. 

cag-mag. hocus-pocus. hurly-burly, 

clap-trap. hoity-toity. hurry-scurry, 

harum-scarum. hotch-potch. namby-pamby, 

higgledy-piggledy. hum-drum. roly-poly, 

hob-nob. humpty-dumpty. willy-nilly. 

759. Old Teutonic Poetry. 

The old Teutonic poetry was constructed on laws of tongue, 
rhyme, or clipping-rhyme and accent, or of clipping-rhyme 
and quantity. The main law of the tongue-rhyme or clipping- 
rhyme is, that every two fellow-verses should have three ac- 
cented w r ords or syllables beginning with the same clippings 
or rhyme-letters, or with three vowels ; and that two of them, 
which are the under -clippings, should be in the first of the two 
lines ; and that the third, called the he ad- clipping, should be 
at the first accent in the other line : as, 

When, found to some bay b, b. 

In the billowy ocean, b. 

O'er seas rolling surges s, s. 

The sailors are steering, s. 

God weighs on his z^aters ?r, w. 

Their ?candering bark, w. 

And ?£afts them with winds ?c, w. 

O'er their watery way, ' v\ 

While his stars for their steersman at, st. 

Bes/ud all the sky. at. 

Then forego all misyivings g, g. 

Of guidance and helping, g. 

For our Panels from the 7/ighest hji. 

Have help in their weakness, h. 

When we work by the will v, w. 

And the wisdom of God. w. 

Or, 

But when the moonlight ///arks anew 

Thy murky shadow on the dew, 

So s/owly o'er the steeping llow'rs, 

Ons/iding through the nightly hours, 

While smokeless on the houses' height 

The higher chimney gleams in light 

Above yon revdx roof, where now, 

With rosy cheeks and lily brow, 

No watchful mother's ward within 

The window Bleeps for me to win, See. 

^rundlaa ^ltsung, tx 

snipes anil amta, of glorj and nlth. 






290 



RHYME. 



If the rhyme-letters are vowels, they should be all sundry ones: 

than ymbe <2?$elne out round the noble 

i?nglas stddon angels stood. 

J?aet se ilea het the same (man) bad 

ealle acwellan to slay all. 

Anglo-Saxon and Icelandic poetry has sometimes, but not 
always or mostly, rhyme as well as tongue-rhyme or clipping 
rhyme ; and short verses have often only two instead of tin 
rhyme-clippings in a couplet, one in each of them : 

iEla ]ni scippend thou creator 

scirra tungla of the bright stars. 

This poetry is constructed mostly by rules of accent or em- 
phasis with some attention to time or quantity, inasmuch afr 
the sharp syllables were of a set number in a line, often two, 
as in the foregoing verses ; but the grave or unemphatic sylla- 
bles were thrown in before, between, or behind them, fewer 
or more as the language may need them. The unaccented 
or unemphatic syllables, which are called the speech-filling, 
were read or sung very quick, like the breviores brevibus, c 
shortened -short syllables, of our verse. 

The following couplet has speech-filling within the brackets . 

[ac se] -s^earca s^orm, .... but the stark storm, 
[]?onne he] strong cymo\ . when it comes strong. 

The following lines have no fore-speech filling : 

scean scix werod, shone the bright host, 

scyldas lixton shields gleamed. 

760. In Icelandic verse there is often an under-clipping 
rhyme, or two incomings, in the same line of the same clipping, 
in the midst or end of two breath-sounds, whereas the place of 
the main clipping-rhyme is at the beginning of them ; as, 

fastorftr skyli fir$a, . . . the king that would be rich in men, 
fe^seell vera IpengiW. . . should always keep his word, 
where 7*% are the under-tongue rhyme in the first line, ng in the latter. 

761. The difference, therefore, between under-clipping rhyme 
and full rhyme — to which under-clipping rhyme often comes 
near — is, that under-clipping rhyme may be the sameness 
only of clipping, and in the middle of a word, while full 
rhyme is the sameness of breath-sound and clipping, and is 
the end of a word. 

Under -clipping rhyme sometimes becomes full rhyme' 
Icelandic. 



RHYME. 2'jl 

762. Some of the more severe kinds of None poetry are 
constructed by rules of quantity, with a set number of syllables 
in a line. 

763. This Teutonic versification is found in the works of 
Anglo-Saxon poets : King Alfred's translation of the Metres 
of Boethius ; Caedmon's Metrical Paraphrase of portions oj 
the Bible ; the heroic poems on Beawulf, king of the Ai . . 

nd the Sagas of the Northern skalds. 

764. We find the true clipping rhyme of Saxon verse in 
the later works of early English j as in the 

Vision of Piers Plowman. 

In a somer seson, s, 8. 

Whan softe was the sonne, s. 

I shop me into «/;roudes, sit, sh. 

As I a $/*eep weere. sh. 

In /^abite as an /^eremite, It, It. 

UnAoly of workes, It. 

Wente wide in this ?£orld, w, w. 

bonders to here; v. 
Ac on a May ///orwenynge . », 

On J/alvcrnc hilles, 

Mebj/fela/erly //. 

Of /aire, me thote. /. 

765. In the sixteenth century the threefold clipping rhyme 
of Teutonic poetry had given place to manifold clipping rhi mei 
in a line, as we find in The Paradise ofDjpnty Devises, printed 
in 1576 : 

The //-listless fcaynes that taping forte allure. — /.'. \ 

last /etter'd here is /brste away to //ye, 

As bunted fore that found bath in the ohaee. — 2 

And by conseyte of Bweete alluring tale, 

lie Sites the faite that freedea his Utter tale. — J! A'. 

Where sethyng righs and «of . -/.. / . 

The fire shall /fceese, the ,/hwi shall ,/He, 
The frozen mountains hie. — M. I 

As one that mnnes beyond his race, and 

./. I: rcher. 

766. Celtic Poetry 01 tin: Ba*M, 

Irish Celtic poetry is constructed on rolea of quantity oi 
; llablcs and lines, clipping-rhyme and yoice-rhyme, under- 

rhyme and full-rhyme. 



292 RHYME. 

767. Irish clipping rhyme, which is much like that of 
Teutonic poetry, is the beginning of two words of a line with 
the same clipping ; as, 

tpiall tap beapb'a na rpeab* pean, 
cap eip /aochpaib'e /aigean. 

Or, as in English : 

Aloft, o'er /urrow'd yields, 
The fork now Zoudly sings. 

768. Irish sound-rhyming is the answering of two breath- 
sounds at the ends of two lines in vowels only, though not in 

PP &te ' ba rhymes with blay. 

aoi „ „ aoiy. 

As, in English : 

Tall o'er the dingy town 

Uprose the lofty tow'r. 
Or, Then flew with deadly aim 

The arrow through the air. 

769. Irish under-rhyme is the answering of two breath- 
sounds at the ends of two lines, both in vowel* and clippings, 
so far as that the clippings may be either the same or of the 
same class, — liquids, or soft, or hard, rough, strong, or light. 

Our rough and smooth kins-letters are two of the Irish 
classes, and the liquids are another; so that %-cam rhymes 
with -mall, and ami with cholam. 

As, in English : 

High o'er the houseless moor 
Kode on the silver moon. 

770. Rinn, or ending, requires that the last word in the 
second and fourth lines of a quatrain should have one more 
syllable than that of the first and third. 

771. There is a kind of under-rhyme, or rhyme called 
union, which is the under-rhyming or rhyming of the last 
word or breath-sound in one line, with one in the middle of 
the following one ; as, . 

Then on buds of early Jlow'rs 
April show'rs had cast bright gems ; 
Then on ev'ry hedge was heard 
Some sweet bird in joyful song. 

772. Lines are often of six, seven, or eight syllables. 



RHYME. 

773. Some of the rules of quantity of syllables are 'head,' 
— that in sundry kinds of verse the lines must end with words 
of one, or two, or three syllables. 

774. Welsh poetry is constructed on laws of number of 
syllables, full-rhyme, and clipping-rhyme ; and is of four, live, 
six, seven, eight, nine, and ten syllables in a line. 

Welsh clipping-rhyme (cynghanedd) is of its own kind, 
different from that of the Irish as well as that of the Teutonic 
languages. Its laws are, that syllables or words of both of 
the two members of a line separated by the caesura, have 
syllables or words with the same clippings : (art. 758.) 

Pur yw ei gfcdd, | por y glyn, 
Pure is his sword, the lord of the valley, 

where the clippings p, r, gl are found in both members of the 

line, — pur yw ei gledd, (and) por y //An. 

The kinsletters are allowed to be rhymes to each other, bo 
that it is good cynghanedd for one pause to answer <l by t, 
b by p } and c by gh in the other. 

These rhymes sometimes become voice-rhymea a* well as 
clipping-rhymes : 

tyrfyn ddaw i bob tjrfa, t, r,f, . . t, r,f; or, 

an end will come to every host. ////', ,/', . . lyr, /'. 

775. There is another kind of clipping - rhyme, called 

cymnieriad (taking), which la a taking of the same clipping 
or breath-sound for the beginning of two, four, or more unei : 

Cael dirgelu 
Clwyf annelUj 
Cair dy aelu, 

Croew (lev haelion, 

Being aide to conceal 
The wound of the arrow-shot, 
An opportunity may be had i I bee, 

Warm Luminarj of the generous i 

This kind of clipping-rhyme [cymmeriad) ii that of the 
Hebrew of the 119th Psalm, of winch eight venet begin with 
the letter aleph, eight more with beth, a third eignl ^ it li 

gimel, and so on to fun. 



294 RHYME. 

776. Ill a cymmeriad of vowels they may be different ones. 

Y doeth | a'r annoeth \ xrnwedd, 
O $yrau'r bjd \ gjr i'r bedd. 

The wise and the unwise alike 

From the ends of the world He sends to the grave. 

777. It may be thought that the clipping-rhyme of the 
bards and skalds is a trifling ornament, even if it gives their 
verse any grace, or affords the ear pleasure enough to be 
worthily called an ornament. 

It is, however, pretty and striking, when it is good of its 
kind ; and in historical poems, such as those of the bards and 
skalds, it was most useful for the continuing of the true text. 
A false word of any weight in the verse could hardly take 
place of a true one, which was bound into its context by 
clipping-rhyme : 

Mwj n& mil am uno maw/, m, n, m, 7, | m, n, m, L 

Liu nefoedd oil jn vfadd. II, n,f, dd, \ 11 , n,f, dd. 

More than a thousand in united praise, 
The throng of heaven were obedient. 
In the first line mawl could not drop out without carrying 
away m /, answering to the ml in mil; and in the second line 
neither nefoedd nor ufudd could be easily displaced by another 
word, as they bind in each other by the letters /, dd. 
In the line, 

Lion yw'r llxx. a //aw/z yw'r lie, 11, n } ywr, 11, \ 11, n, ywr, 11. 
Gay is the throng and full the place, 
{ llon yw'r lh\' has the same clippings as 'Ifawn yw'r lie;' and 
in the Saxon distich, 

FrsegR /romlice 
JVuman and ende. 
He asked prudently 
The beginning and end, 
the words 'frsegn/ f fromlice/ and 'fruman' are bound to- 
gether by the common clipping fr. 

We are told by Caesar, that the young bards of Britain 
learnt large stores of verse by rote ; and clipping-rhyme seems 
an excellent device to warn a bard or singer of a wrong or 
forgotten word. 

778. When two rhyme-words come together, and one of 
them has a syllable more than the other, the Persians call it 
tujnis-i-zaiad, or overfull matching ; as, 

The birds alight light on the boughs. 



RHYME. :2Uj 

779. When two sets of rhyming breath-sounds come to- 
gether, but one set in more words or syllables than the other, 
the Persians call it mixed-matching, tujii'is-i-utonikkub, just 
as if some punner were to make ' hollow furnace ' answer to 
f Holophernes.' 

780. When two matching words come together at the end 
of a line, the Persians call it tujiiis-i-utokurur, or repetition- 
rhyme ; as, 

The earthquake's mighty shock 
Has made the rock rock. 

While the summer air 
On the tree leaves leaves. 

No tree hears calls, 

No stone feels falls. f I, s, \ f, I, s. 

When the seaman floats 

Where the wave deals boats. b, t } s, | 5, /, f. 

Where o'er the fields the winds wend, ic, n, <L 

And make the limber bents bend, b, >/, I, \ b, n, d. 

781. "When two words answer in all but the last dipping, 
the Persians call it tujn\s-i-moturruj\ or end-matching, tl 

it is rather a fore-rhyming. This is the Irish rhyme, inch 
as that of our moon with moor. (Art. 708.) 

782. Root-matching, called by the Persians I <;tik< .k, Of (hi i- 
vation, is the matching of words from the same root Under 
root-matching we may class the Greek polyptoton; ai in Latin, 

Ilium absent afoeniem, auditque, ridetque, — Firy, lib. iv. L 

Thus did I long bite ou the fomynge hiU.—Bickard Hill. 

Littora Uttoribus contraria, bo. — Fifff. Jh. iv. fl 

Pum inea me victam, doceai fortuna dolere. — M a, 8 t8. 

TTOVOQ TTOVip TTOVOV fkf>U.—SopkOOL -(/'-'", 
Zvfi7Tt(TUJV poVOC fluvoir. — Idt //', \~>'J- 

txQpuv deojpet Cwpa Kut'K nriinifin. — Llrm, 646. 

Saw distant gates of Eden gleam, 
And did not dream it iraa ■ dream,— I 

Such harmony in motion, shape, and 

That without fairness she was more than /air.- ( 
When thou hasl hung thy advanced iword in the air, 
Not Letting it decline on the 



296 RHYME. 

The proud are always most provoked by pride. — Cowper. 

Thou brightest star of jfarbright Italy. — Coleridge. 

Nor less, on either side, tempestuous fell 

His arrows from the fowfold-visaged four. — Milton. 

.... to have fouud themselves not lost 
In loss itself .... 

Which tempted our attempt, and wrought our fall. 

Not more almighty to resist our might, 

Than wise to frustrate all our plots and wiles. 

a grateful mind 

By owing oives not, but still pays, at once 
Indebted and discharged .... 

Saw tmdelighted all delight .... 

Not to know me, argues yourselves unknown. 

till the wrath 

Which thou incurr'st by flying, meet thy flight 
Sev'nfold 

well we may afford 

Our givers their own gifts, and large bestow 
From large-bestow" d .... Ibid. 

Behold they spit on me in scornful wise, 

Who by my spittle gave the blind-man eyes. — G. Herbert. 

If shape it might be called that shape had none. — Milton. 

Not happy happe, but froward fate. 

Yloop, Paradise of Daintie Devises, 1576. 

I tosse as one hetost on waves of care. — L. Vaux, ibid. 

Now, now, I needs must part, 

Parting though I absent mourn ; 

Absence can no joy impart, 

Joy once fled can ne'er return. 

W^hile I live I needs must love ; 

Love lives not when life is gone. — Old Madrigal, 1590. 

Root-matching is not likely to hold its ground in corrupt 
languages, where the forming of words from its roots is no 
longer much if at all followed, and where words formed from 
its own roots are given ap for borrowed ones. 

Addison says of root-matching by Milton : "A second fault 
in his language is, that he often affects a kind of jingle in 
his words, as in the following passages and many others : 

That brought into this world a world of woe, 

Which tempted our attempt. 



RHYME. 297 

I know there are figures for this kind of speech, that some 
of the greatest antients have been guilty of it, and that 
Aristotle himself has given it a place in his Rhetoric among 
the beauties of that art; but as it is in itself poor and trifling, 
it is, I think, at present universally exploded by all the mas- 
ters of polite writing." — Addison's Critique on Paradise Lost. 

However poor and trifling this figure might have seemed to 
Addison, it is sometimes very striking, as shown in the 
spontaneous language of mental emotion ; whilst some of the 
greatest antients who have been guilty of it, are the prophets 
and writers of the Bible. 

Tn» *pr?V nrm rrnrr 

' v - i j t - t : 

yehuida ata yuiduida aicheka. 

Judah, thee shall thy brethren praise. — Gen. xlix. 8. 

Judah and praise are both from the root PIT- 

Don jod'\n *ainiu. d } n, | <l, ft. 
Dan shall judge his people. — Oen, xlix. 16. 
Dan is judgment, from ]TT. 

Oad geduul yegmdennm, vhm yagwd ska?.— v. L9. 
Gad, a troop shall assail him, but he shall overcome the assault. 

Here gadiud, yagiudennui, yagwd, arc all from the rool TU« 

So in Noah's blessing of Japhet : 

Y& Elohim .»/,/, My,/,/. 

Japhet and enlarge are both from njlD 

T T 

Palindrome. 

783. A palindrome, called by the Peruana mukloob, or conver- 
sion^ is the matching of words thai arc anagrams of each other i 
Speedy boatman, o'er the deep*. 

781. A line or sentence may be bo formed, as to give the 
same breath-sounds when read forward or backward. Tin- is 
called by the Persians the equal anagram, or conversion 

orom (\"d id 



ive me rest. 



18$ 



298 RHYME. 

Or, Meat's steam. 

Not a ton. 



/Vow stop My 
jam p 



Eeed at a deer. 
Not ten net ton. 



785. Word -repetition, called by the Persians rud, is the 
repeating of the same word twice in a distich : 

1 . at the beginning and end ; 

2. in the middle of the first hemistich, and beginning 

or end of the other ; 

3. at the end of both hemistiches ; 

4. at the beginning and end of the last hemistich ; 

5. any where in the two lines. 

And ev'ry golden feather gleam'd therein, 
Feather and scale inextricably blended. — Shelley. 

My death's the death of Death and Hell. — Poem, temp. Elizabeth. 

but the full sum of me 

Is sum of nothing Merchant of Venice. 

Day into darkness, — darkness into death. — Hood. 

786. Paronomasia. 

Paronomasia is the giving together of two words, with some 
likeness of sound though of unlike meaning ; as, 

Nam inceptio est amentium haud amantium. — Ter.And. act i, sen, 1. 13. 

Angeli, non Anyli, forent si Christiani essent. — St. Gregory. 

As if the tree by which I lent doeth lende me no relief. 

Paradise of Daintie Devises. 

Uaura, che'l verde lauro e Vaureo crine, 

Soavemente sospirando move. — Petrarca, Sonetto ccviii. 

787. Speech-Matching. 

Sundry parts of speech, noun or verb, in one line of a 
distich, or in one part of a hemistich, may be answered by 
the same part of speech in the other line of a distich, or the 
other part of the hemistich ; and this answering of parts of 
speech may be called speech-matching. 

3, l.*l,3. 
See barbarous nations at thy gates attend, 
Walk (3) in thy light (1), and in thy temple (1) bend (3).— Pope. 



RHYME. 299 

1, l.*l,l. 

Strength (1) in her limbs (1), and on her wings (1) dispatch (1). 

o 2*2 3 Churchill. 

"VVho clothed (3) me naked (2), or when hungry (2) fed (3), 

3, 2.* 3, 2. 
Why crush (3) the living (2), why extol (3) the-dead (2). — Savoy?. 

788. Task. 

A poet may impose upon himself any task, — as that he will 
introduce some forechosen word into every distich or line, or 
exclude it from his poem; or that every line shall end witli a 
noun; or that his poem shall take a chosen form to the sight , 
or he may bind himself to work out any unusual fancy : and 
such a task is called by the Persian poets luzium, a compulsion 
or task, as that of the poet Syfee of Nishapoor, who resolved 
to bring the words silver and stone into every hemistich of a 
poem of his. 

Under this head may be placed a trifling kind of writing of 
the Persian poets, called tujn'is-i-khat, or stroke-matching, 
or a matching of words written in the Persian Letters br- 
others with the same strokes, and a writing to the sight, like 
the tasks of George Herbert, when he wrote two poems 
which took in print the form of wings, and another on tin- 
altar, which takes the form of one on his page. 

The 119th Psalm is a task poem of a high order. It i> 
divided into sections, under the name- of the Hebrew letters, 
and every line of a section begins with the same letter, while 
every verse speaks of the law or word of Grod. 

It is true every poem is more or 1'-— a t ;i - k or hi/.mm, inasmuch SI 
the writing of it binds the port to some law - of mi tre or rhyme ; 
task poem of the kinds that arc meant under this head, i- one written 
by some less usual or some unusual task-rule. 

The following is a task-poem, with every line ending in the 
brcath-sonnd -ine. 

What is or may be mine, 

That is or shall he thine, 

Till death the twist nntuine 

Thai doth our loves combine. 
Bui if thy heart repine, 
Thy body Bhould he mine ; 
Show me thereof Bome -ine, 

That 1 may >laek the line 

That knits' thy will to mine.— My Lvckt M I 



300 RHYME. 

The following task distich is formed of three lines of frag- 
ments of words, so that those of the middle one read with 
those of both the other two : 



Qu- an- 


tris- 


di- 


c- 


vul- stra- 


-os -guis 


-ti 


-ro 


-um 


-nere -vit, 


H- san- ' m 


Chris- 


mi- 


t- 


mu- la- 


Quos angais 


tristi 


diro 


cum 


vulnere stravit, 


Hos sanguis 


Christi 


miro 


turn 


muuere la vit. 



Notes and Queries, iv. No. 92. 

Each word of each line is a rhyme to the answering one of 
the other. 

A like one in English : 

cur- f- w- d- dis- and p- 

A -sed -iend -rought -eath -ease -ain. 

bles- fr- b- br- and- ag- 

A cursed fiend wrought death, disease, and pain ; 
A blessed friend brought breath and ease again. 

Burthen-rhyme, which the Eastern poets call mosujja, or 
rhythmical, is a kind of task. The Eastern burthen-rhyme 
verse has usually three lines rhyming together, and the fourth 
ending with the burthen or burthen- word of the poem, as in 
the last four lines of each verse of the following poem : 

Ruth a-riding. 

Of all the roads that bridges bear 

O'er waters shining in the heat, 
Or bowneck'd steeds in summer wear 

To flying dust with brightshod feet, 

The dearest winds through Ryals glades, 

Where, o'er the knaps in elmtree shades, 

The airblown primrose blooms and fades, 

And Ruth comes out a-riding. 

And I would fain, with early feet, 

Arise ere morning dew is dry, 
And wend through dust of midday heat 

To bluest hills of all the sky, 
If there, at last, ere dusk of day, 
The evening sunlight would but pay 
The longsome labours of my way 
With sight of Ruth a-riding. 



RHYME. 301 

A feather' d cap with bending brims 
O'ershades her warmly -blooming face, 

Her trimset waist and slender limbs 
Or rest or bend with winsome grace ; 

And as her skirt o'erspreadeth wide 

With flowing folds the horse's side, 

He flings his head and snorts with pride 
To carry Ruth a-riding. 

While bright below her sable cap 

Her sparkling eyes look down the lanes, 

And, loosely bending o'er her lap, 
Her slender hands hold up her reins, 

The gateman fain would open wide 

His gate, and smiling stand aside, 

Foregoing all his toll with pride, 
To look on Ruth a-riding. 

In the Paradise of Dainty Dorises, printed in 1576, there 
is a word-acrostic, in which the first words of every line, 
taken in succession, make a distich, which is the text of 
the poem. TexL 

11 If thou desire to live in rest, 
Give care and see, but say the best." 

If thou delight in quietness of life, 

Desire to shun from broiles, debate, Bud strife, 

To live in love with God, with friend, and foe, 

/// rest shalt Bleep when other- cannot so. 

Give eare to all, yet do not all believe, 

And see the end, and then do sentence L r i\< 

But my i for truth, of bapp) lives assinde, 

The best hath he that quiet is in minde. M II 

The Persian and Hindoo poets write a kind of mnemonic 
verse, called torjkh, the letters of which bear its date, and 

they mostly Contrive to bring their own names into tin last 

distich of a poem. 

The following is a singular task-poem of George ll< rh 
The task is, that the Last words of the latter two lines of 
verse arc formed by dropping of Letters from the last word of 
the former ones ■ 

[nclose me -till, for fear 1 start, 

Be to me rather -harp and tart, 

Than Let me want thy hand and art. 

Such Bharpnesa -how- the sweetest friend, 
Such cuttings rather heal than rend. 
And such beginnings touch their i 



302 RHYME. 



789. Hebrew Poetry. 

The Hebrew poetry, the language in which the Holy Ghost 
spake by the prophets, is constructed on rules different from 
the foregiven ones of other languages. It is formed on rules 
of parallel predicates or figures. 

790. The great rule of Hebrew poetic parallelism is, that in 
a distich or couplet the first line shall have at least two 
members, and that the other shall have two more members, 
answering them, so far as that they give the same members 
under other names, or other members of like speech-kind. 

Job xxviii. 2. (A) iron — (B) is taken out of the earth, 

(A) and brass — (B) is molten out of the stone ; 

where brass, the first member of the second line, is the par- 
allel to iron, the first member of the first line; and f is 
molten out of the stone/ is the parallel to ' is taken out of 
the earth/ 

Job xxv. 5. Behold even to (A) the moon, — (B) and it shineth not ; 
Yea, (A) the stars — (B) are not pure in his sight. 

2 Sam. i. 23. They were (A) swifter — (B) than eagles ; 
They were (A) stronger — (B) than lions. 

Job xi. 9. The measure thereof is (A) longer — (B) than the earth, 
And (A) broader — (B) than the sea. 

2 Sam. i. 20. (A) Tell it not— (B) in Gath, 

(A) Publish it not — (B) in the streets of Askalon. 

791. The two members of each line may be two sentences : 

(A) Though your sins be as scarlet, — (B) they shall be as white as snow ; 
(A) Though they be red like crimson, — (B) they shall be as wool. 

Isaiah i. 18. 

Ps, vi. 2. (A) Have mercy upon me, Lord, — (B) for I am weak : 
(A) Lord, heal me, — (B) for my bones are vexed. 

792. They may be a subject and predicate : 

(A) Thy silver — (B) is become dross, 
(A) Thy wine — (B) mixed with water. 

793. Where the subject is the same in both lines, the two 
members may be a verb and object. 

Is. i. 23. [Every one] (A) loveth— (B) gifts, 

and (A) folio wet h — (B) after rewards. 



RHYME. 303 

Here the subject l every one' is a kind of speech-filling, 
and does not go into the parallel. 

Is. liii. 4. [Surely he] (A) hath borne — (E) our griefs. 

and (A) carried — (13) our sorrows. 

Ps. lxxxi. 1. (A) Sing aloud — (B) unto God our strength : 

(A) Make a joyful noise — (B) unto the God of Jacob. 

794. The two members may be an adjective and its form : 

(A) They were swifter — (B) than eagles ; 
(A) They were stronger — (B) than lions. 

795. "When the subject and verb are both the same, the two 
members may be two things in two case- : 

Ps. lxxx. 11. [She sent out] (A) her boughs — (B) unto the sea, 

and (A) her branches — (B) unto the river. 

Ps. xxv. 9. [The meek] (A) will he guide — (B) in judgment : 
[The meek] (A') will he teach — ij>' ) hu way. 

796. Sometimes the last pair of parallels arc elegantly 

inverted : 

Job xxv. 4. (a) How then can man 

(b) be justified with God? 
(b) Or how can In- lie clean 
(a) that is born of a woman P 

797. The same word is not often given in one distich a> a 
parallel to itself in another, unless the latter distich is an am- 
plification of the other. This blemish appears in the English 
translation of Job xxv. (\, but it is not found in the Hebrew. 

How much less (A) man,— that is (B) 8 worm P 
And (A) the son of man,— which 18 1 1- B w< 

In Hebrew : nD1 ^M ' N 3 «1N 

at • j ;v r i 

: nj^n din " m 

I T •• | T T 

OOCCOi 

The word of the latter line, which 18 translated 'worm,' is 
rather an insect, as the COCCUS, which yields xarht d\c 

Jobxxxix. 5. Who hath sent out tl 

Who hath Loosed the bsndi 

'wild ass,' io the first line, u NJB, ita ipecific Dan 

'wild ass,' in the other line, ia 1'" 



304 RHYME. 

(A) And they waited for me — (B) as for the rain ; 
(A) And they opened their month wide — (B) as for the latter rain. 

Mxxix. 23. 

c rain,' in the first line, is 1J0Q, its specific name ; 
'rain,' in the second line, is l^ip^D, the 'latter.' 

Ps. xxvi. 10. (A) In whose hands (T) — (B) is mischief, 

(A') And their right hand (VW)— (B') is full of bribes. 

The Lord will strengthen him upon the bed (W)V) of languishing : 

Thou wilt make all his bed (33$D) in his sickness. 

Ps. xli. 3. 

798. The same words, however, may appear in both members 
of a distich, when it is not an answering, and therefore not 
an emphatic w r ord : 

My voice — shalt thou hear — [in the morning], Lord : 
[In the morning] will I direct my prayer unto thee. 

Ps. v. 3. 

799. The same word may stand in a following member of 
a distich that amplifies the former one : 

Ps.ix. 9. The Lord also will be (A) a refuge — (B) for the oppressed : 
(A') A refuge — (B') in times of trouble. 

Ps. lvi. 10. (A) In God — (B) will I praise his word : 

(A') In the Lord — (B') will I praise his word. 

Ps. xxix. 4. (A) The voice of the Lord — (B) is powerful : 

(A') The voice of the Lord — (B') is full of majesty. 

800. An amplification seems to be sometimes given for a 
parallel : 

Ps. lxvii. 3. Let the people — praise thee, O Lord ; 
Let all the people praise thee. 

801. A parallelism is sometimes amplified by following 
ones, and the first or short parallel is followed by a line, which 
reappears in the same or like form after the other : 



RHYME. 305 

Is. liii. 7. (A) He was oppressed, 

(B) And lie was afflicted, 

(C) Yet he opened not his mouth : 

(A) He is brought as a lamb to the slaughter, 

(B) And as a sheep before her shearers is dumb, 

(C) So he openeth not his mouth. 

Job x. 21. Before I go whence I shall not return, 

(A) Even to the land of darkness 

(B) And the shadow of death ; 

(a) A land of darkness — (A') as night, 

(b) And of the shadow of death — (B') without order. 

Here the line a A' amplifies A, and b B' amplifies the line B. 

Ps. cxiii. 8. (A) He raiseth up the poor — (B) out of the dust, 

(A') And lifteth the needy— (B') out of the dunghill ; 
That he may set him with princes, 
Even with the princes of his people. 

802. The excellence of the structure of Hebrew poetry is 
beyond that of the poetry of other nations, inasmuch us it is 
one which is not lost in translation. 

The charming skill and sweetness of the Greek and Latin 
feet of long and short breath-sounds, and ours of Bharp and 
grave ones, with the end-rhyme, sound-rhyme, and clipping- 
rhyme of other nations, cannot follow a poet's thoughts out of 
his language; but the Hebrew parallelism, which is grounded 
upon things and not words, can leave its own language, and 
tunc the psalm and the prophecy with the touching harmony 
of its twin ideas to every man in his own language,- an ex- 
cellence of markworthy fitness for the word which was to be 
published to all nations. 

803. Traces of Hebrew parallelism arc found in -on 
the discourses of our Lord, and other writings of the Men 
Testament. 

The language which rises into poetry in the New Testament 

is mostly that of strong feeling and earnest declaration, a- in 
Acts ii. 14, "Peter lifted up his voice, and >aid unto tlicin, 

(A) Yc men of Judea, 

(B) And all ye that dwell at Jerusalem, 

(A) Be this known unto yon, 

(B) And hearken to my words." 



306 RHYME. 

804. Wherever parallelism is found, whether in the New 
or Old Testament, it becomes a useful key of interpretation ; 
since, if the third member of a parallel means the first under 
another name, or in another form, we may conclude that the 
fourth means the second ; as, 

(A) come, let us sing — (B) unto the Lord : 

(A') Let us heartily rejoice — (B') in the strength of our salvation. 

Where we may conclude that if ' rejoice ' in (A') is the 
same action as 'sing' in (A), then ( the strength of our sal- 
vation ' in (B') is 'the Lord' of (B). 

Ps. cv. 20. (A) The king — (B) sent and loosed him [Joseph], 
(A') The ruler of the people, — (B') let him go free. 
Here the subject of A and A' is the same (the king of 
Egypt) , although in A' he is given by a periphrasis ; and in 
the members B and B', the actions ' loosed ' and ' let go free ' 
are the same action of i the king/ and ' Joseph ' is the object 
of it. 

805. If the subject of the third member only bears some 
likeness to that of the first, yet, if the meaning of three out 
of the four members is clear, and one of them is disputed or 
sought, the three clear ones will often disclose the meaning 
of the dark one. 

Job xxvi. 13. (A) By his spirit — (B) he hath garnished the heavens; 
(A') His hand — (B') hath formed the crooked serpent. 
Here we may believe that as (B') speaks of the heavens, 
and the subject of A' is the hand (power) of God, as that 
of A is his power, so B' also speaks of the heavens, and 
that ttfrO (serpent) must mean a constellation. 

806. Parallels are sometimes of three with three, instead 
of two and two : 

(A) Thou hast rebuked the heathen,-r(B) thou hast destroyed the wicked, 

(C) Thou hast put out their name for ever and ever. 
(A') O thou enemy, destructions are come to a perpetual end, 
(B') And thou hast destroyed cities : 

(C) Their memorial is perished with them. 

Ps. ix. 5, 6. 
(A) The clouds poured out water : — (B) the skies sent out a sound : 

(C) Thine arrows went abroad. 
(A') The voice of thy thunder was in the heaven : 

(B') The lightnings lightened the world : 

(C) The earth trembled and shook. 

Ps. lxxvii. 17, 18. 



RHYME. 307 

(A) Take an harp, — (B) go about the city, 

(C) Thou harlot that hast been forgotten ; 

(A') Make sweet melody, — (B') sing many songs, 
(C') That thou mayest be remembered. 

Isaiah xxiii. 16. 

807. The symmetry of parallelism appears in sundry other 
forms besides those of the parallels of two with two, or three 
answering to three, as in Psalm cxv : 

(A) Israel, trust thou in the Lord : 

(m) He is their help and their shield. 

(B) house of Aaron, trust in the Lord : 

(m) He is their help and their shield. 

(C) Ye that fear the Lord, trust in the Lord : 

(m) He is their help and their shield. 

(D) The Lord hath been mindful of us : 

(E) He will bless us ; 
(A') He will bless the house of Israel ; 
(B') He will bless the house of Aaron ; 
(C) He will bless them that fear the Lord. 
Where A', B', and C take up A, B, and C. 

The member (A) may be a continuation instead of a parallel 

to (A) : 

(A) They cried, — (B) but there was none to save them i 
(A') Even unto the Lord, — (IV) but he answered them not. 

wiii. 1 1 . 

808. In Matthew xxiii. we read : 

They make broad — their phylacteries, 

And enlarge — the borders of their garments, 

And love the uppermost rooms — at leasts 

And the chief seats — in the synagogues, 

And greetings —in the markets, 

And to be called of men, — Rabbi, Rabbi 

This shows us parallelism, which we may believe to extend 
further. On reading on with attention we find six parallel-*, 
three and three : 

First, three precepts and three reasons : 
But be not ye called Rabbi : 

for one is your Master, even Chlisl ; and all ye are lm-tln- 
And call no man your father upon the earth : 

for one is your Father, which is in luavi u. 
Neither be ye called Masters ; 

for one is your Master, even Clirist. 



308 RHYME. 

Then follow three precepts with three antitheses : 

But he that is greatest among you, 

let him be your servant. 
And whosoever shall exalt himself 

shall be abased ; 
And he that humbleth himself 

shall be exalted. 

809. In two of the first three parallels we have a tautology 
which Hebrew parallelism hardly allows. We read ' for one 
is your master, even Christ/ in two of the parallels ; and so 
far there are grounds afforded by parallelism for thinking that 
the reading or translation is bad. 

Bloomfield says of vf^6vjyv]Tvi; (v. 8), " There is some doubt 
as to the reading here. Many of the best commentators 
would read SiSxmuXos, which is found in several MSS., 
versions and fathers, but is received by no editor except 
Fritz. " Yet Bloomfield thinks $3ci<THctXo<; the true reading. 

In the Syriac version of St. Matthew it is rabi (master) 
in the first parallel; aba (father) in the next; and meda- 
bronee (guides) in the third. 



309 



INDEX. 



A. 

Ablative case (Latin), 111, 116, 

118, 129, 133, 135. 
Absolute case, 112. 
Accent, 261. 

Accusative case (Latin), 113, 114, 
120, 133, 137. 

(Greek), 120. 

Adjective, 29, 155. 

forms of, 156, &c. 

comparison of, 166. 

definite and indefinite, 

167. 

ellipsis of, 255. 

Adverb, 29, 227, 253. 
Ampliibolia, 257. 
Anastrophe, 257. 
Antecedent, 244. 
Antithesis, 48. 
Aphseresis, 48. 
Apocope, 48. 
Apodosis, 198. 
Article, 121, 154. 

ellipsis of, 254. 

Asyndeton, 257. 
Attraction, 245. 

B. 

"Being, accidental, &c, 178. 
Bisaya language, 246. 
Blank verse, 2 S3. 
Breathings, 10. 
Breathsounds, 1. 



C. 

Case, 85, 253. 
Cases, classes of, 102. 

definitions of, 107. 

Case endings, 240-246. 

substitute? for, 2 Id. 

249. 
Case, Bhiftingof, 121 -2 t5. 

twofold, 121-246. 

Celtic race 260. 

clipping-rhyme, 2ti 

Clippings, 1 1 . 

tabic of, I"). 

canons of, SO, be. 

Clipping-rhyme, 287. 

Teutonic, 289. 

Celtic, 291. 

Comparison of things, 92. 
Concord, ICO, 245, 249. 
Conjunction, 30, 240. 
Consonants, 8, 18. 
Crasis, 266. 

1). 

Dative case (Latin), 117, L18, 

128, 138. 
Definite things, 121. 
Diaeresis, 266. 

Diphthong, 8. 
Do, 194/ 



Ecthlipsis, 265. 



310 



INDEX, 



Ellipsis, 253. 
Enallage, 256. 
Epentkesis, 48. 
Ergo, 108. 
Est pro habeo, 125. 
Ethnology, 259. 
Etymology, 28. 
Etymological figures, 48, 
Eupliemismus, 258. 



Language, 2. 

type, 5. 

displacement of, 260. 

Lapponic language, 105. 
Latin verbs in -or, 109. 
Letters, 9. 

undipped, 12. 

Lip letters, 9. 



Feet, 266. 

change of, 269. 

formulae for, 266. 

Figures of Etymology, 48. 

Grammar, 256. 

Einnic language, 106. 
race, 259. 



Formation of words, 49. 
French language, 26, 260. 

G. 

Gender, 76. 

Genitive case (Latin), 107, 108, 

127, 128, 129. 
Gerund (Latin), 120, 134. 



H. 

Half-rhyme, 278. ■ 
Hebrew, 27. 
Hebrew Poetry, 302. 
Hendiadis, 257. 
Hungarian, 105. 
Hypallage, 257. 
Hysterologia, 257. 

I. 

Indefinite things, 121 
Instar (Latin), 108. 
Interest (Latin), 110. 
Interjection, 30. 
Irish verse, 287, 291. 



M. 

Measure of things, 143. 
Metonymy, 257. 
Metre, 266. 

Mongolian language, 246. 
Mood, 196, 210. 

infinitive, 196. 

indicative, 197. 

imperative, 197. 

subjunctive, 198. 

subjunctive hypothetical, 

200. 

potential, 211. 

two-mood formulae, 210. 

Mutes, 10. 



N. 

Negative verbs, 184. 
Negatives, 252. 
Nominative case, 103. 
Noun, 28. 

of agent, 63. 

of place, 65, 70. 

of instrument, 65. 

of quality, 66. 

gentile, 71. 

universal, 76. 

verbal, 57, 121. 

diminutive, 59. 

augmentive, 62. 

collective, 62. 

of past time, &c. 

artificial, 61. 

forms of, 59, See. 



62. 



LXDEX. 



311 



Nouns, forms of: 



(1+3), 71. 



•.), 59-62, i 
■1), 68-70. 



-.), 72, 59. 
•1), 71. 



(3+.), 53-57, 63, 74. 
(3+1), 72, 74. 
(3+4), 74. 
(3+5), 74. 
Number, 81, 179. 



Propositions, threefold, 209. 

relate. 

Prosody, 261. 
Prostlit-H. t8. 
Protasis, 198, 252. 
Purity, 25S. 



Qualities, rating of, 92. 
Quantity, 2J1, 263. 



0. 
Orthography, 6, 16. 

P. 

Palate-letters, 9. 
Palindrome, 297. 
Paragoge, 48. 
Paronomasia, 298. 
Parenthesis, 248. 
Participles, 188. 
Patronymics, 07. 
Person" 76, 179. 
Phonetic letters, 21. 
Phonotypy, 20. 
Pleonasm, 256. 
Plural, 81. 

of excellence, 84. 

Polyptoton, 295. 
Possessive case, 107. 
Postposition, 23:}, 210. 
Predicate, 242. 
Prepositions, 80, 111, 2:53. 

Greek, 236. 

forms of, 237. 

ellipsis of, 255. 

Pronoun, 28, 145, 213, 249. 

limiting, 1 19. 

relative, 15 1, 2 13. 

distributive, 150. 



demonstrative, 160. 

indefinite, 1 5 ] . 

numeral, 151. 

ellipsis of, 25."). 



E. 

Eating of Qualities, 92. 
Eefert (Latin), 110. 
Ecciproeal verbs, 1 SI. 
Rhyme, 2?;. 

— twofold, 282. 

(clipping), 887. 

repetition, 2!'."). 

Rhymes, arrangem< at of. 
Root-matching, 295. 



SatagO 'Latin*, no. 
Sclavonic race, 
Scanning, S 
Semi-vowels, L0. 
Shall, 192, 812. 
Bight-speech, 3. 
Signs 

Singular Dumber, s 1. 
Sonnet, 29 i. 
Sound 
Speech, l. 
Speech-matchi] 
Spelling (rule* for), 1 9. 
Snbjeot, l 12, 
Supine Latin), 184. 

Svll.j 

Synaloepha, 

l»\ I s . 
S\ necdoc 

x, 242. 
Syij.-ena langnaj 



n 



312 



INDEX. 



T. 

Task, 299. 
Tense, 184, 252. 

formulae, 185. 

Teutonic race, 259. 

poetry, 289, 

Throat letters, 9. 
Tongue teeth-letters, 
Triphthong, 8. 



Verb, 29, 168, 252. 

concord of, 626. 

(Latin in) or, 109. 

strong, weak, 169, 214. 

mixed, 217. 

one-thing, 223. 

two-thing, 224. 

three-thing, 225. 



Verb, causative, 172. 

diminutive, 173. 

inchoative, 174. 

reciprocal, 181. 

negative, 184. 

iterative, 188. 

semclf active, 188. 



Verse, Irish, 287. 

catalectic, 274. 

Vocative case, 104. 
Voice, 180, 187. 
Vowels, 6. 



W. 

Welsh poetrv, 292, 293. 
Will, 192, 212. 
Words, formation of, 49. 

notation for, 50. 

Word-matching, 286. 



FINIS. 



B. TUCKEB, PEINTEB, VEEEY'S TLACE. OXIOET) STEKET. 






